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HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


BY 
CHARLES    C.   BOYER,   Ph.D. 

VICE-PRINCIPAL,  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  KUTZTOWN,  PA. 

AinEOR  or  "  WAYMARKS  OF   GENERAL   HISTORY,"   "  MODERN   METHODS  FOR  MODERN 
TEACHERS,"  ETC. 


CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO  BOSTON 


Copyright,  igig,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


LA 


SA-^T*  P.A*1BV3A,  (;M.IF0KNI\ 


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PREFACE 


The  thematic  purpose  of  this  volume  is  to  show  that 
historically  education  has  been  a  progressive  adjustment 
of  claims  in  the  exercise  of  human  freedom.  In  the 
beginning,  and  as  long  as  the  human  race  was  young, 
the  rights  of  the  individual  were  largely  sacrificed  to  the 
claims  of  some  stronger  social  whole,  as  in  Egypt,  India, 
Persia,  and  Sparta.  In  the  Golden  Age  of  Greece  and 
the  Roman  Republic  the  individual  attained  to  a  larger 
measure  of  freedom,  which,  however,  at  length  broke 
down  completely  when  the  republic  gave  way  to  the  em- 
pire, into  which  Greece  also  became  merged. 

When  Christianity  swept  over  the  Roman  Empire, 
it  exalted  the  individual,  with  gain  to  the  social  whole. 
This  exaltation  was  a  gain  to  the  social  whole,  as  well 
as  to  the  individual,  because  God's  will  became  the  ideal 
norm  of  human  freedom.  The  disruption  of  the  empire 
by  the  northern  hordes  paved  the  way  for  the  despotic 
subordination  of  human  freedom  to  the  control  of  the 
Church  as  the  human  representative  of  God  on  earth. 
The  Renaissance  was  an  extreme  revolt  of  the  individual. 
In  its  first  phase  it  was  a  reversion  to  Greek  paganism; 
in  its  second,  namely,  the  reformation  of  the  sixteenth 
centur}'-,  the  Renaissance  distinguished  sharply  between 
the  institutionalism  of  the  Church  and  the  fundamental 
claims  of  rehgion,  revolting  only  from  the  former  and 
3deiding  with  absolute  surrender  to  the  holy  will  of 
God,  thus  returning  to  the  position  of  early  Christianity. 


iv  PREFACE 

The  formalism  into  which  the  reformation  as  an  educa- 
tional movement  hardened,  as  in  the  gymnasiums  of 
Sturm  and  the  Jesuits,  again  defeated  this  ideal  adjust- 
ment of  claims,  thus  giving  rise  to  new  conflicts  in  behalf 
of  human  freedom.  Among  the  most  important  post- 
reformation  movements  in  behalf  of  human  freedom 
we  may  enumerate  realism  and  naturalism  and  the  re- 
ligious concomitant  of  both,  namely,  pietism  in  its  vari- 
ous forms.  The  educational  movements  beginning  with 
Pestalozzianism  all  exalt  the  individual  along  lines  that 
perfect  the  social  whole  and  subordinate  both  to  the  ulti- 
mate purposes  of  God,  with  infinite  gain  to  both  the  in- 
dividual and  society.  In  short,  the  course  of  events,  as 
we  shall  see,  clearly  shows  that  any  system  of  education 
which  failed  to  adjust  human  relations  to  di\dne  purposes 
gave  way  in  time  to  something  more  promising,  and  that 
the  hope  of  finally  adjusting  all  conflicting  claims  should 
be  the  teacher's  supreme  ideal.  This  thematic  purpose 
of  the  volume  should  be  kept  in  constant  view,  for  only 
thus  will  the  student  of  education  attain  to  the  profes- 
sional perspective,  to  that  holier  \dsion,  that  compelling 
inspiration,  without  which  he  cannot  become  morally 
identified  with  the  great  cause  for  which  he  is  to  labor  and 
to  pray.  This  idealism,  this  stimulating  vision,  is  best 
attained  by  beginning  at  the  beginning,  and  coming  up  to 
the  nearer  present  without  delay,  thus  attracting  the 
learner  by  the  novelty  and  imperfection  of  the  far  past 
and  producing  at  the  same  time  that  sustained  interest 
which  proper  approach  to  dramatic  climax  assures. 

It  is  evident  that  the  study  of  educational  ideals  or 
problems  must  be  based  upon  the  study  of  the  complex 
history  which  produces  them.  These  historical  connec- 
tions have  been  woven  into  the  web  and  woof  of  our  text. 


PREFACE  V 

It  must  be  the  major  task  of  the  volume  to  exercise  the 
student  of  education  in  this  argument  of  cause  and  efifect, 
the  origin  of  educational  problems  and  their  solution  in 
school  systems.  Such  training  should  make  him  an  ex- 
pert interpreter  of  his  own  profession  and  a  contributor 
to  the  cause  which  he  is  to  serve.  We  have  tried  to 
heighten  this  effect  and  to  enrich  the  laboratory  of  our 
educational  problems  by  bringing  the  student  into  inti- 
mate biographical  relation  with  the  fertile  and  forceful 
personalities  to  whom  educational  systems  owe  their 
origin,  success,  or  failure. 

The  practical  purpose  of  the  volume  should  be  evident 
enough.  The  historical  perspective  to  which  such  think- 
ing leads  produces  spiritual  comradeship  with  the  great 
reformers,  and  thus  acts  as  a  powerful  professional 
stimulus.  The  unceasing  challenge  of  the  student's 
judgment  in  the  solution  of  problems  by  the  great  re- 
formers, the  measure  of  success  to  which  they  attained 
in  the  system  of  means  to  ends  proposed,  the  estimate 
which  he  is  constantly  called  upon  to  make  as  he  passes 
from  century  to  century,  from  nation  to  nation,  from  re- 
former to  reformer,  should  certainly  help  to  qualify  him 
for  the  expert  manipulation  of  means  to  ends  in  his  own 
tasks.  To  insure  this  result  as  much  as  possible,  the 
student  of  this  volume  is  constantly  required  to  compare 
the  whole  past  with  the  present,  find  fitness  or  unfitness 
of  means  and  ends,  estimate  ideals  and  their  force,  en- 
rich his  conclusions  by  appeals  to  psychology,  ethics, 
sociology,  and  real  life. 

The  writer  acknowledges  with  profound  respect  the 
debt  he  owes  to  the  authorities  whom  he  consulted  in  the 
preparation  of  this  volume,  and  to  Doctor  Ellwood  P. 
Cubberley,  who  read  the  manuscript,  for  his  courtesy, 


vi  PREFACE 

appreciation,  and  helpful  suggestions.     The  volume  is 

dedicated  with  pleasure  to  thousands  of  graduates  with 

whom  long  and  happy  association  has  made  the  volume 

possible,  and  to  many  thousands  still  on  the  way  to  the 

schoolroom.     That  the  work  may  serve  its  purpose  is 

his  sincerest  hope. 

Charles  C.  Boyer. 
State  Normal  School, 

KuTZTOWN,  Pa.,  July  i,  1919. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 

EDUCATION   OF   THE   ANCIENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    Education  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians      .         2 

12 
18 
25 
31 
35 
45 
81 


II.  Education  of  the  Ancient  Chinese 

III.  Education  of  the  Ancient  Hindus 

rv.  Education  of  the  Ancient  Persians 

V.  Education  of  the  Ancient  Shemites 

VT.  Education  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews 

VII.  Education  of  the  Ancient  Greeks 

VIII.  Education  of  the  Ancient  Romans 


PART  II 
christian  education 

rx.     Christian  Education 100 

X.    Christian  Education  (continued)  .     .     .     123 

XL    The  Renaissance 159 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 


PART  III 

THE   REFORMATION 

CHAPTER  PAGI 

XII.    The  Reformation i8o 

XIII.    The  Jansenists,  the  Christian  Brothers, 

AND  the  Pietists 221 


PART  IV 

REALISM 

XrV.    Realism 249 

PART  V 

modern  times 

XV.    Naturalism 290 

XVI.    The  Psychological  Movement  ....  305 

XVII.    Present  National  Systems  of  Education  336 

XVIII.    The  United  States 374 

Xrx.    Tendencies 423 

Index 457 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

PART  I 

EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 

ORIENTAL  NATIONS 

Even  savages  have  to  learn  how  to  live,  and  this 
process  is  really  education,  but  a  description  of  such 
primitive  education,  however  interesting  it  might  be 
from  an  antiquarian  standpoint,  could  have  no  legiti- 
mate place  in  a  treatise  designed  for  the  normal  school 
and  college  curriculum  of  the  twentieth  century. 

The  same  things  have  been  said,  and  with  some  jus- 
tice, about  the  space  devoted  to  the  second  stage  of 
education,  that  of  "barbarism,"  best  represented  by 
the  Oriental  t5^es  of  China,  Shemite  Asia,  India,  Per- 
sia, Egypt,  but  there  is  a  difference.  The  very  "one- 
sidcdness"  and  "strangeness"  of  these  Oriental  systems 
challenge  the  twentieth-century  mind,  and  thus  make 
them  good  "first  subjects"  in  the  great  process  of  ap- 
perception by  which  we  finally  learn  to  "think"  our 
century.  But  when  that  much  has  been  said,  we  must 
admit  that  the  briefest  possible  treatment  is  all  that 
good  pedagogy  requires. 


CHAPTER  I 

EDUCATION   OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS 
THE   EGYPTIANS 

The  ancient  Egyptians  were  Hamites  from  western 
Asia,  from  which  starting-point  their  migration  into 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  was  probably  dictated  by  ease 
of  access  and  wealth  of  prospects.  The  incomparable 
fertility  of  the  soil  produced  by  the  annual  overflow  of 
the  Nile  assured  rapid  growth  of  population.  Under 
the  favorable  condition  of  this  habitat,  the  Egyptians 
attained  to  a  high  state  of  civilization  centuries  before 
all  others. 

Kings. — The  Hamites,  known  in  Holy  Writ  as  Cush- 
ites,  had  existed  in  Httle  states  along  the  shores  of 
the  Indian  Ocean,  Persian  Gulf,  and  Red  Sea,  prob- 
ably for  centuries  before  a  powerful  chief,  Menes,  made 
himself  master  of  the  Nile  valley  from  the  sea  to  the 
cataracts  of  Syene,  and  founded  5000  B.  C,  if  not 
earlier,  the  first  race  of  kings  known  to  history.  It  was 
the  beginning  of  a  long  succession  of  ambitious  and 
glorious  dynasties. 

About  2050,  B.  C,  if  not  earUer,  the  Hyksos,  or  Shep- 
herd Kings,  said  to  be  the  Hittitcs  of  the  Bible,  over- 
threw older  kingdoms  of  Memphis  and  Thebes,  and 
reigned  until  1500  B.C.  It  was  in  this  period  that  the 
Jews  found  a  home  in  Egypt. 

About  1200  B.  C.  the  great  Amosis  expelled  the 
Shepherd  Kings  and  established  an  empire.  The  great- 
est monarch  of  this  age  was  Rameses  II.     He  extended 

2 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS   3 

the  empire  by  conquests  far  beyond  the  confines  of 
Egypt,  and  in  his  long  reign  of  almost  seventy  years 
produced  a  golden  age  in  architecture,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, literature,  science,  philosophy,  and  commerce,  etc. 

Presently,  after  several  short  revivals,  as  under 
Shishak  who  plundered  Jerusalem  in  970  B.  C,  and 
under  the  kings  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  Psam- 
metichus  and  his  son  Necho,  who  established  and  main- 
tained most  important  relations  with  Greece,  the  em- 
pire began  to  decline.     Necho  died  601  B.  C. 

Cambyses,  King  of  Persia,  conquered  Egypt  in  525 
B.  C,  and  Alexander  of  Macedon,  in  332  B.  C.  The 
history  of  ancient  Eg3rpt  had  closed. 

Religion. — Over  and  above  all  else,  the  one  ever- 
present,  all-explaining  thing  in  the  life  and  mind  of 
ancient  Egypt  is  religion. 

Among  the  Egyptians,  as  probably  among  all  the 
ancients,  primitive  knowledge  of  a  Supreme  Being — 
the  result  of  special  revelation — became  corrupted  into 
a  confusing  system  of  nature-worship,  but  the  Egyp- 
tians more  than  all  other  ancients  reduced  this  nature- 
worship,  in  form  at  least,  to  a  repulsive  worship  of 
animals. 

Gods. — An  early  recognition  of  the  complex  de- 
pendence of  Egypt  upon  the  Sun  and  the  river  Nile 
remains  the  fundamental  conception  of  theology. 
This  conception  is  seen,  for  example,  in  Osiris,  the 
sun-god,  who  after  a  nature  conflict  with  Typhon, 
or  Set,  the  evil  one,  became  the  king  and  judge  of 
Hades.  The  Nile  fertility  of  Egypt  is  divinified  in 
Isis,  who  thus  becomes  sun-goddess  wife  of  Osiris. 
The  seasonal  power  of  the  Sun,  in  turn  creating  and 
destroying,  led  to  the  conception  of  a  mediating  god, 


4  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Horus,  son  of  Osiris  and  Isis.  This  attempt  of  the 
Egyptian  imagination  coming  to  the  rescue  of  baffled 
reason,  in  the  explanation  of  nature,  gave  rise  to  a 
veritable  multitude  of  gods,  all  of  whom  must  be  ap- 
peased and  worshipped. 

Animal-Worship. — Perhaps  this  elaborate  poly- 
theism failed  to  blot  out  completely,  at  least  among 
the  priests  of  a  smaller  inner  circle,  the  cognition  of  a 
personal  supremacy  above  and  behind  all  nature  as 
its  first  great  cause.  The  Greek  historian  Herodotus 
leads  us  to  think  so;  but  be  this  as  it  may,  the  priest- 
hood as  a  whole,  probably  for  selfish  reasons,  corrupted 
Egyptian  religion  still  further  by  reducing  it,  as  has 
been  stated,  to  a  repulsive  worship  of  animals.  The 
common  people  were  taught  to  worship  animals  as 
symbols  of  deity,  or  as  the  actual  residence  of  deity. 
It  was  in  this  sense  that  Osiris  was  worshipped  in  the 
Apis,  or  sacred  ox.  The  cow  was  sacred  to  Isis,  hons 
were  emblems  of  Horus,  the  hippopotami  to  Set,  or 
Typhon.  Among  other  sacred  animals  were  cats  and 
dogs,  and  even  crocodiles. 

Immortality. — Side  by  side  with  animal-worshipping 
polytheism  in  Egyptian  religion  was  the  belief  in  a 
future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments.  In  other 
words — and  this  is  a  pretty  chapter  in  psychology — 
the  Egyptian  self-consciousness,  looking  out  of  its 
body-house,  began  to  have  a  conception,  vague  as  it 
may  have  continued  to  be,  of  soul-immortality,  long 
before  the  Jewish  race  came  into  being.  But,  as  we 
should  expect  from  a  people  who  would  stoop  to  wor- 
ship animals,  they  looked  upon  this  other  life  in  won- 
derment— as  in  a  dream — even  as  the  Sphinx,*  animal 
*  Myers'  "General  History." 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS      5 

in  body,  human-headed,  looks  out  over  Egypt.  We 
are  not  surprised,  therefore,  to  read  in  the  papyrus 
"Book  of  the  Dead"  about  a  "Hall  of  Judgment," 
and  about  the  "Transmigration  of  the  Soul."  There 
was  a  "Trial  of  the  Dead"  in  the  court  of  Osiris,  where 
the  cause  of  the  soul  must  be  pleaded,  and  the  soul  it- 
self weighed  against  a  statue  of  justice,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  forty-two  judges.  The  acquitted  soul  joined 
the  throng  of  the  blest.  The  soul  rejected  as  unworthy 
of  the  Egyptian  heaven  was  driven  oflf  and  compelled 
to  reappear  on  earth  again,  assuming  the  form  of 
various  animals  until  after  a  long  course  of  expiation 
— thousands  of  years,  perhaps — it  might  return  puri- 
fied to  its  old  body.  The  custom  of  carefully  embalm- 
ing the  body  of  the  dead  probably  arose  from  this 
belief  that  the  soul  would  return.  The  fact  that  this 
process,  connected  with  elaborate  burial  services,  be- 
came one  of  the  strictest  duties  of  the  priests,*  con- 
firms this  idea. 

The  religion  of  Egypt  produced  the  best  literature 
which  Egypt  has  contributed,  namely,  the  "Book  of 
the  Dead,"  already  mentioned,  and  Prince  Phtah- 
hotep's  "Book  on  Morals."  And  yet  this  religion  did 
not  fill  Egypt  with  gloom,  as  the  songs  and  stories 
prove. 

Castes  of  Egypt. — The  minute  intricacy  with  which 
religion  was  woven  into  the  life  of  Egypt,  by  making 
the  priests  eminently  necessary,  placed  them  in  effect  at 
the  top  of  the  social  fabric,  its  masters  and  the  shapers 
of  its  destiny.  As  a  class  the  priests  were,  of  course, 
very  numerous  and  punctilious  in  their  life.  Never- 
theless they  were  not  in  any  forbidding  sense  ascetic. 
*  Lord's  "Ancient  Religions,"  pp.  38  and  39. 


6  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

The  king  himself  belonged  to  them,  and  the  high 
priest  was  usually  a  member  of  the  royal  family. 
They  were  emphatically  and  solely  the  learned  class. 
The  priesthood  thus  included  the  poets,  the  historians, 
the  expounders  and  administrators  of  law,  the  physi- 
cians, and  the  magicians  who  did  the  wonders  before 
Moses. 

Next  to  the  priests  of  ancient  Egypt  stood  the  sol- 
diers. They  constituted  a  powerful  order,  a  well- 
organized  militia,  and  supported  by  a  fixed  portion  of 
land,  free  from  all  taxation.  The  soldier  could  till 
his  own  land  when  not  under  arms,  but  could  follow 
no  other  occupation. 

The  castes  below  the  priests  and  soldiers  had  no  ci\ic 
privileges  and  could  not  own  land.  The  farmer  who 
tilled  the  land  paid  his  rents  in  produce  to  the  ruler  or 
to  the  priests  who  owned  it.  The  herdsmen  were  the 
lowest  caste.  The  swineherds  were  regarded  as  out- 
casts and  were  not  allowed  to  enter  the  temples. 

The  castes,  however,  were  not  rigidly  separate,  as 
in  India.  Accordingly,  ''members  of  the  dijfferent  or- 
ders might  intermarry,  and  the  children  pass  from  one 
caste  to  the  other  by  hereditary  occupation." 

Architecture. — The  architecture  of  ancient  Egypt, 
as  we  are  prepared  to  see,  was,  like  its  literature  and 
social  system,  prevailingly  religious.  The  sublime  re- 
mains of  Egyptian  architecture  are  not  palaces  but 
temples  and  tombs.  The  pyramids,  the  wonder  of  all 
centuries,  were  not  simply  monuments  of  ambitious 
kings,  but  tarrying-places  for  the  soul  till  judgment  be 
fulfilled.  Sculpture  and  painting,  the  handmaids  of 
architecture,  were  certainly  dominated  by  the  same 
overpowering  sense  of  immortality.     This  conclusion 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS      7 

is  supported  and  emphasized  by  the  invariable  choice 
of  enduring  stone  as  building  materials,  and  by  the 
massiveness  of  the  conceptions. 


EDUCATION 

The  foregoing  analysis  of  Hfe  and  mind  will  enable 
us  to  understand  Egyptian  education  as  a  system  of 
means  to  ends. 

Ends  in  View. — The  above  analysis  shows  that, 
apart  from  the  powerful  educational  influence  of  the 
Nile,  religion  as  a  means  to  happiness  in  the  life  that 
is  and  a  life  to  be  was  the  one  thing  needful.  This 
primary  purpose,  including  its  stress  on  moraUty, 
however,  as  we  shall  see,  does  not  exclude  or  even  be- 
little the  second,  or  other  purpose,  namely,  preparation 
for  life  in  the  land  of  the  Nile.  In  this  rainless  land,  the 
water  poured  into  Egypt  by  the  yearly  inundations 
had  to  be  conserved  in  artificial  lakes,  such  as  Lake 
Mceris  may  have  been,  and  distributed  in  dry  seasons 
east  and  west  over  the  land  by  means  of  artificial 
waterways.  Moreover,  it  was  quite  as  necessary  to 
defend  the  lowlands  against  destructive  inundation. 
Thus  arose  engineering,  including  mathematics,  and 
also  the  mechanics'  arts.  Agriculture,  weaving,  making 
woollen  goods,  ironware,  glass,  etc.,  were  highly  devel- 
oped. Commerce  made  writing  and  arithmetic  great 
necessities. 

Primary  Education.— In  Egypt  women  were  often 
held  in  honor,  and  as  in  Turanian  lands  and  among  the 
Jews,  they  were  not  wholly  excluded  from  the  privilege 
of  education,  but  their  opportunities,  except  at  the 
court  of  the  kings,  were  usually  meagre. 


8  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

The  state,  as  is  well  known,  provided  no  educational 
system  for  the  masses.  For  them  life  itself  was  an 
apprentice  school,  somewhat  as  among  the  chosen 
people  in  the  early  days,  and  in  startling  harmony  with 
the  modern  principle  of  education  that  the  accessible 
world  of  the  child  should  be  the  school  laboratory. 
The  masses,  however,  owing  to  the  interests  of  the 
priests,  were  not  wholly  neglected  in  religious  and 
moral  training.  The  needs  of  the  artisan  class  must 
have  called  for  at  least  a  little  writing  and  arithmetic. 

Higher  Education, — In  Egypt  higher  education  was 
very  special — the  privilege  of  the  priests  and  the  nobles. 
The  curriculum  included  writing,  mathematics,  en- 
gineering, architecture,  law,  medicine,  astronomy. 
Hterature,  art,  reHgion,  morals,  etc. 

For  many  centuries,  up  to  the  time  of  the  empire,  as 
reliable  historians  tell  us,  the  court  of  the  king  was 
the  centre  of  Egyptian  life,  and  thus  became  the  place 
where  the  sons  of  the  wealthy  went  to  school  with 
the  sons  of  the  king.  The  curriculum  of  these  court 
schools,  as  we  judge,  must  have  been  quite  complete. 
Under  the  empire  the  curriculum  became  more  special- 
ized, and  schools  of  instruction  were  attached  to  the 
various  departments  of  the  government,  and  the  de- 
partment officials  supervised  a  kind  of  apprentice 
training.  The  priestly  class,  including  all  the  great 
professions  and  the  finer  arts,  obtained  their  education 
from  "temple  colleges,"  and  the  priests  themselves  did 
the  teaching. 

The  methods  of  Egyptian  education  deserve  atten- 
tion. Inasmuch  as  the  hieroglyphics,  about  a  thousand 
in  number,  varied  all  the  way  from  pictures  to  phonetic 
letters,  industry  coupled  with  flogging  became  the  ac- 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS      9 

companiments  of  drill.  As  soon  as  sufficient  writing 
skill  had  been  acquired,  the  boys  were  required  to 
copy  stories,  poems,  ethical  precepts,  rules  of  etiquette, 
and  the  like,  but  rather  as  a  means  to  the  end  in 
•'fine  writing"  than  training  in  content.  The  lessons 
in  arithmetic  were  extremely  practical,  running  largely 
into  weights  and  measures.  The  study  of  astronomy 
was  not  so  successfully  correlated  with  mathematics  as 
among  the  Babylonians.  The  study  of  medicine  was 
vitiated  by  admixture  of  magic  and  incantation. 

Estimate. — (i)  The  Egyptian  valued  the  soul  above 
the  body  and  the  future  above  the  present,  which  as 
an  educational  ideal,  can  never  be  surpassed;  but  in 
practice  the  soul  and  the  future  were  sacrificed  to  super- 
stition. (2)  The  Eg}^tian  doctrine  of  a  future  state 
of  rewards  and  punishments  is,  as  psychology  shows, 
the  only  sufficient  moral  motive,  but  in  Eg^-pt  this 
motive  was  robbed  of  its  moral  worth  by  substituting 
ritual  sacrifices  for  character  as  character.  (3)  The 
caste  system  produced  professional  experts,  but  sacri- 
ficed, though  not  completely,  all  the  lower  classes, 
and  even  the  offered  expert  professional  training  guar- 
anteed no  real  freedom  of  individuality.  (4)  The  edu- 
cational methods  of  ancient  Egypt  were  not  wholly 
bad,  and  yet  science  was  never  taught  as  science; 
art — even  her  highest  art,  architecture — never  found 
its  emancipation  from  stiff  convention;  philosophy, 
lofty  in  its  aims,  never  found  the  true  God.  (5)  The 
course  of  culture  in  ancient  Egypt  shows  that  all  the 
great  problems  of  life  and  mind  were  approached  by 
this  first  race  of  men,  and  this  fact  in  turn  argues 
powerfully  in  favor  of  the  doctrine  of  the  oneness  of 
origin  of  all  races. 


10  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  Sanderson's  "World  History  and  Its  Makers." 

3.  Lord's  "Ancient  Religions." 

4.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

5.  Graves'  "History  of  Education  Before  the  Middle  Ages." 

6.  Davidson's  "History  of  Education." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Who  were  the  ancient  Egyptians?  Account  for  the  early 
civilization  of  this  people. 

2.  Discuss  Menes  as  the  founder  of  the  first  royal  race  in 
history. 

3.  Account  for  the  Hyksos,  and  explain  the  course  of  their 
reign  in  Egypt. 

4.  Say  what  you  can  of  Amosis  and  the  greatness  of  the  empire 
which  he  founded. 

5.  Trace  the  decline  and  fall  of  ancient  Egypt. 

6.  What  is  the  one  ever-present,  all-explaining  thing  in  Egyp- 
tian Hfe  and  mind? 

7.  Tell  how  this  probable  belief  of  primitive  Egypt  in  a 
Supreme  Being  became  corrupted  into  a  confusing  system  of 
nature-worship. 

8.  Make  the  Egyptian  priests  responsible  for  the  gross  prac- 
tices of  animal-worship. 

9.  Explain,  as  a  chapter  in  race  psychology,  the  Egyptian 
belief  in  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments,  and  the 
moral  corruption  of  this  doctrine.  What  literature  did  the  belief 
produce? 

10.  Tell  how  the  Egyptian  priesthood  attained  its  ascendancy 
and  used  it  in  the  resulting  caste  system. 

11.  Show  in  detail  that  the  prevailing  motive  in  Egyptian 
architecture  and  allied  arts  is  religion. 

12.  Account  for  the  two  correlated  ends  in  view  in  Egyptian 
education,  going  into  full  details. 

13.  Describe  the  curriculum  and  explain  the  methods  of  pri- 
mary education  in  Egypt,  going  into  full  details. 


EDUCATION   OF   THE   ANCIENT   EGYPTIANS      11 

14.  Explain  the  higher  education  of  Egypt  in  the  old  kingdom 
and  in  the  empire,  going  fully  into  the  details  of  curriculum  and 
method. 

15.  Point  out  the  worst  and  the  best  things  in  Egyptian  edu- 
cation in  the  light  of  ethics  and  psychology. 

16.  How  do  the  attempts  of  this  earliest  race  of  civilizable 
people  to  solve  great  human  problems  affect  the  modern  con- 
clusion of  evolution? 


CHAPTER   II 

EDUCATION   OF  THE  ANCIENT   CHINESE 

THE    CHINESE 

As  a  Race. — By  race  the  Chinese  are  Turanians. 
They  now  occupy  a  country  somewhat  larger  than  the 
United  States,  with  a  population  about  four  times  as 
large.  Authentic  Chinese  history,  if  we  may  believe 
their  own  writers,  covers  a  period  of  four  thousand 
years.  The  most  conspicuous  Chinese  race  quality  is 
self-complacency.  Geographical  isolation  added  dis- 
like of  foreigners  to  self-complacency.  Extreme  non- 
progressiveness  was  the  inevitable  consequence.  The 
race  passed  through  a  short  youth,  a  period  of  inventive 
production,  but  this  youth  failed  to  grow  up.  After 
inventing  gunpowder  and  printing,  and  other  arts, 
the  Chinese  lapsed  centuries  ago  into  deep  ruts.  In 
time  respect  for  ancestors  became  a  sort  of  religion 
among  them.  For  centuries  it  was  enough  for  the 
Chinese  to  think  what  their  ancestors  thought,  to  love 
what  they  loved,  and  to  do  what  they  had  done.  This 
ancestral  ideal  finally  found  a  voice  in  the  famous 
Confucius. 

CONFUCIUS 

In  the  Making. — Confucius,  meaning  Kong  the 
Teacher,  is  the  name  by  which  the  Western  world  best 
knows  the  most  famous  Chinese  sage  and  moralist. 
He  was  born  about  550  B.  C,  the  son  of  a  prime  min- 

12 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHINESE       13 

ister  of  the  province  of  Loo.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
devoted  himself  to  learning,  and  continued  to  be  a 
student  as  long  as  he  lived.  He  was  deeply  impressed 
by  the  moral  and  political  degeneracy  of  the  age  in 
which  he  lived,  and  thus  became  a  reformer. 

Contributions. — (i)  After  filling  several  political  of- 
fices of  trust  with  great  credit  to  himself,  Confucius, 
now  twenty-two  years  of  age,  assumed  the  task  of  pubUc 
teacher,  and  his  house  became  a  school  for  young 
men  eager  to  study  the  teachings  of  the  ancients.  At 
thirty-five  he  began  to  tour  the  empire,  teaching  as  he 
went.  The  tour  lengthened  into  years — eight  of  them — 
fruitful  years.  PoHtical  preferment  came  to  him  again 
and  again,  but  teaching  and  writing  continued  to  be 
his  passion.  (2)  "The  literary  labors  of  Confucius 
were  very  great,  since  he  made  the  whole  classical 
literature  of  China  accessible  to  his  countrymen.  The 
fame  of  all  preceding  writers  is  merged  in  his  own  re- 
nown. His  works  have  had  the  highest  authority  for 
more  than  two  thousand  years.  They  have  been  re- 
garded as  the  exponents  of  supreme  wisdom,  and 
adopted  as  text-books  by  all  scholars  and  in  all  schools 
in  that  vast  empire,  which  includes  one-fourth  of  the 
human  race.  To  all  educated  men  the  'Book  of 
Changes'  (Yih-King),  the  'Book  of  Poetry'  (She- 
King),  the  'Book  of  History'  (Shoo-King),  the  'Book 
of  Rites'  (Le-King),  the  'Great  Learning'  (Ta-heo- 
King),  showing  the  parental  essence  of  all  government, 
the  'Doctrine  of  the  Mean'  (Chung-yung),  teaching 
the  golden  mean  of  conduct,  and  the  '  Confucian  Ana- 
lects'  (Lun-yu),  recording  his  conversations,  are  su- 
preme authorities;  to  which  must  be  added  the  works 
of  Mencius,  the  greatest  of  his  disciples.     There  is  no 


14  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

record  of  any  books  that  have  exacted  such  supreme 
reverence  in  any  nation  as  the  works  of  Confucius, 
except  the  Koran  of  the  Mohammedans,  the  Book  of 
the  Law  among  the  Hebrews,  and  the  Bible  among 
Christians.  What  an  influence  for  one  man  to  have 
exerted  on  subsequent  ages,  who  laid  no  claim  to  divin- 
ity or  even  originality — recognized  as  a  man,  worshipped 
as  a  god  !"  * 

When  Che-Hwang-te,  or  Hoang-ti,  the  only  progres- 
sive emperor  China  ever  had  (221  B.  C),  realized  that 
the  Confucian  classics  hindered  his  reforms,  he  buried 
their  champions  alive  and  ordered  the  books  to  be  de- 
stroyed. Reverence  for  these  books  caused  loving 
hearts  to  find  hiding-places  for  them,  and  when  the 
king  died  the  books  were  brought  out  of  their  hiding- 
places,  but  it  was  not  until  the  accession  of  the  Han 
dynasty,  206  B.  C,  that  the  reigning  emperor  collected 
the  scattered  writings  of  the  sage  and  exerted  his  vast 
power  to  secure  the  study  of  them  throughout  the 
schools  of  China. 

CHINESE   SCHOOLS 

For  centuries  before  and  after  Confucius  primary 
education  was  highly  esteemed,  and  practically  uni- 
versal.    And  there  were  higher  institutions  of  learning. 

Primary  Schools. — The  Chinese  made  no  formal 
provisions  for  the  education  of  girls.  The  boys  began 
to  go  to  school  at  the  age  of  six  or  seven.  Reading  as 
the  key  to  the  classics  was  the  subject  par  excellence. 
Writing,  arithmetic,  and  such  human  relations  as 
obedience,  justice,  and  mercy  were  added  to  the  course. 

*  Lord's  "Beacon  Lights  of  History." 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHINESE       15 

There  were  no  schooUiouses  in  the  modern  sense  of 
the  tenn.  The  school  was  kept  in  the  house  of  the 
teacher  or  other  convenient  place.  The  pupils  studied 
out  loud,  repeating  the  teacher's  statements.  The 
main  purpose  was  to  memorize,  not  to  think.  The 
Chinese  language  is  ideographic  rather  than  alphabetic. 
More  than  fifty  thousand  words  or  signs  are  employed, 
but  they  are  not  related  by  declension,  comparison,  or 
inflection.  At  least  five  thousand  of  these  characters 
must  be  mastered  in  order  to  read  well.  It  is  not  a 
wonder,  therefore,  that  the  great  majority  of  Chinese 
boys  left  school  very  young,  and  that  they  were  some- 
what disobedient  in  their  school  tasks.  Inasmuch  as 
disobedience  at  school  was  serious  to  the  whole  scheme 
of  Chinese  ancestral  reverence  it  was  sufficient  cause 
for  severe  punishments,  among  them  castigation,  star- 
vation, and  imprisonment. 

Higher  Institutions. — The  value  which  Chinese  an- 
cestral consciousness  placed  upon  such  human  relations 
as  obedience  to  parents  and  rulers,  social  justice  and 
personal  righteousness  made  something  like  college 
courses  preparing  for  leadership  in  the  higher  vocations 
simply  indispensable.  Talented  young  men  would  at- 
tach themselves  to  masters,  and  spend  years  in  prepar- 
ing for  a  series  of  competitive  examinations,  the  fourth 
and  last  of  which  was  to  be  held  at  Pekin.  Among  the 
courses  offered,  as  the  Confucian  classics  show,  were 
music,  poetry,  history,  ethics,  politics,  medicine,  as- 
tronomy, and  mathematics.  All  the  examinations 
were  strictly  competitive.  The  prospect  of  lucrative 
imperial  service  acted  as  a  powerful  stimulus.  Thou- 
sands of  candidates  presented  themselves  at  intervals 
of  three  years.     The  examinations  were  written,  and 


16  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

lasted  for  days.  The  candidates  were  supplied  with 
the  necessary  writing  materials  and  worked  in  isolated 
cells  or  apartments,  strictly  guarded.  Those  who 
failed  might  try  again.  The  successful  candidates  who 
failed  to  secure  government  positions,  took  up  such 
other  vocations  as  their  ancestral  course  of  studies 
made  possible. 

Estimate. — The  fitness  of  means  to  ends  in  view  in 
the  Chinese  system  of  education  is  very  evident.  But 
the  perfection  of  human  relations  at  which  the  system 
aimed  is  just  as  evidently  impossible,  apart  from  pro- 
found religious  consciousness — and  this  was  lamenta- 
bly absent  from  the  Chinese  ancestral  scheme  even 
after  Confucian  reformation  had  occurred,  for  while 
Confucius  recognized  the  existence  of  a  God,  he  said 
almost  nothing  about  religion.  The  Chinese  mind 
failed  to  realize  that  direct  relation  of  the  soul  to  a 
personal  God  is,  as  psychology  shows,  the  only  final 
guarantee  of  spiritual  moraUty.  While,  therefore,  we 
recognize  what  an  opportunity  Chinese  higher  educa- 
tion was  for  talented  men,  and  that  the  commitment 
of  their  institutional  life  to  these  talented  men  made 
for  institutional  contentment,  we  must  pronounce  the 
system,  what  it  has  proved  itself  nationally,  a  tragic 
human  failure. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Lord's  "Beacon  Lights  of  History." 

2.  Graves'  "History  of  Education  Before  the  Middle  Ages." 

QUESnONS 

I.  Who  are  the  Chinese?  Account  for  their  non-progressive- 
ness.     What  accordingly  was  the  Chinese  ancestral  ideal? 


EDUCATION   OF  THE  ANCIENT   CHINESE       17 

2.  Who  was  Confucius ?  Consider  Confucius  "in  the  making." 
Give  an  account  of  his  career  as  a  teacher,  and  his  work  as  a 
writer.     Compare  him  with  other  famous  personahties. 

3.  Explain  the  perils  to  which  Che-Hwang-te  subjected  Con- 
fucianism, and  how  it  became  the  dominating  influence  of  sub- 
sequent centuries. 

4.  Visit  a  Chinese  primary  school.  Explain  the  importance 
of  reading  in  the  school  curriculum.  Why  so  difficult?  What 
were  the  results?  Why  was  disobedience  more  serious  than 
with  us  ? 

5.  What  were  the  ends  in  view  in  Chinese  higher  education? 
Consider  the  curriculum  as  means  to  ends.  Discuss  the  whole 
system  of  competitive  examinations. 

6.  What  were  some  of  the  evident  merits  of  the  Chinese  sys- 
tem of  education?  What  are  the  verdicts  of  psychology  and 
history  ? 


CHAPTER   III 

EDUCATION   OF  THE  ANCIENT  HINDUS 
THE    HINDUS 

About  2000  B.  C.  hardy,  warlike  Aryans  from  the 
table-lands  of  central  Asia  began  to  press  through  the 
passes  of  the  Himalayas  into  the  valleys  of  the  Indus 
and  Ganges  Rivers.  These  invaders  are  known  to  us 
as  Hindus.  In  time  they  conquered  the  non-Aryans, 
who  had  occupied  the  country  before  them.  Those 
non-Aryans  who  refused  to  submit  to  the  Aryan  con- 
querors took  to  the  mountains,  and  are  known  as  the 
"Hill  Tribes"  to-day.  The  inevitable  commingling 
of  conquered  and  conqueror  produced  the  mass  of  the 
population  of  present  India.  This  Aryan  migration 
had  two  far-reaching  results,  namely,  loss  of  race- 
vigor,  and  social  inequalities. 

Loss  of  Vigor.— The  luxury  and  leisure  which  suc- 
ceeded the  conquest  of  India  with  her  wealth  and  soft- 
ness of  climate  changed  a  rugged  and  warHke  race  into 
a  pacific  and  contemplative  race.  This  explains  why 
the  Hindu  conquerors  were  subsequently  conquered 
themselves,  first  by  Alexander  the  Great,  327  B.  C, 
then  by  the  Mohammedans  in  the  tenth  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  by  the  Mongols  in  the  thirteenth,  and 
last  of  all  by  the  English,  to  whom  India  gave  a  new 
empire  of  two  hundred  milHon  souls. 

Castes  of  India. — The  Aryan  conquest  of  non-Aryan 
India,  had    a    second   far-reaching  result,   namely,   a 

18 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HINDUS        19 

rigorous  caste  system.  The  Hindus  as  a  race  are 
deeply  religious.  Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  although 
the  military  class  was  in  the  ascendancy  during  the 
long  period  of  invasion,  the  priestly  class,  aided  by  cli- 
mate, gradually  became  the  dominant  class.  The 
Hindu  priests  are  called  "Brahmans,"  after  Brahma 
their  God.  This  "learned  class"  comprises  not  only 
priests,  but  lawyers,  physicians,  teachers,  scholars, 
etc.  Next  to  the  Brahmans  come  the  ''Kshatriyas," 
comprising  not  only  the  military  but  the  governing 
class.  The  third  caste,  consisting  of  farmers,  artisans, 
and  merchants,  and  constituting  the  backbone  of 
India,  are  called  "Vaisyas."  The  conquered  non- 
Aryans,  or  slaves,  are  called  "Sudras."  The  very  an- 
cient book  of  Hindu  laws,  called  the  ''Institutes  of 
Menu,"  regulates  these  class  divisions,  a  violation  of 
which  produces  the  "Pariah,"  or  outcast. 

Brahmanism. — Hindu  poets  writing  in  Sanskrit,  the 
oldest  Aryan  language,  if  not  the  oldest  of  all  languages, 
produced  poems,  or  hymns,  known  as  Vedas.  These 
poems  are  really  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindu  re- 
ligion, or  Brahmanism.  The  Vedas  show  that  Hin- 
duism, or  Brahmanism,  originally  rests  upon  the  behef 
in  an  all-pervading  mind,  from  which  the  universe  took 
its  rise.  From  this  vague  deism  the  Vedas  slip  uncon- 
sciously into  the  belief  in  Brahma  as  the  creating  god, 
Vishnu  the  preserving  god,  and  Siva  the  destroying 
god.  "This  was  further  corrupted  into  pantheism, 
which  sees  a  god  in  everything— in  sun,  moon,  stars, 
the  Ganges,  the  Indus,  beasts,  and  flowers."  * 

"In  its  higher  development  Brahmanism  holds  that 
the  human  soul  is  of  the  same  nature  with  the  supreme 
*  Sanderson's  "World  History,"  p.  ig. 


20  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

being,  and  that  its  destiny  is  to  be  reunited  with  him. 
This  led  to  the  great  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  or 
transmigration  of  souls,  which  is  necessary  to  purify 
the  human  soul  for  union  with  the  divine.  Accord- 
ing to  this  view  man's  soul  in  this  world  is  united  to 
the  body  in  a  state  of  trial,  which  needs  prayer,  penance, 
sacrifice,  and  purification.  If  these  are  neglected  then 
the  human  soul,  after  death,  is  joined  to  the  body  of 
some  lower  animal,  and  begins  a  fresh  course  of  pro- 
bation. In  popular  practice,  gross  idolatry  and  super- 
stition, with  a  cowardly  and  selfish  disregard  of  human 
life,  have  largely  prevailed  alongside  of  the  philosophi- 
cal tenets  of  the  educated  class."  * 

Thus  "Brahmanism  became  corrupted.  Like  the 
Mosaic  Law,  under  the  sedulous  care  of  the  sacerdotal 
orders  it  ripened  into  a  most  burdensome  ritualism. 
With  the  supposed  sacredness  of  his  person,  and  with 
the  laws  made  in  his  favor,  the  Brahman  became  in- 
tolerable to  the  people,  who  were  ground  down  by  sac- 
rifices, expiatory  offerings,  and  wearisome  and  minute 
ceremonies  of  worship.  Caste  destroyed  all  ideas  of 
brotherhood;  it  robbed  the  soul  of  its  affections  and 
aspirations.  Like  the  Pharisees  in  the  time  of  Jesus, 
the  Brahmans  became  the  oppressors  of  the  people."  f 
This  corrupted  Brahmanism  was  reformed,  or  restored 
to  its  pristine  form  with  its  logical  conclusions,  by 
Buddha. 

Buddha. — (i)  Buddha  was  not  a  Brahman,  but  a 
Hindu  prince,  and  therefore  of  the  Kshatriya  caste. 
He  was  born  about  550  B.  C,  and  reared  in  a  dis- 
trict where  Brahmanic  teaching  was  greatly  modified 

*  Sanderson's  "World  History,"  p.  20. 
+  "Beacon  Lights  of  History,"  p.  80. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HINDUS       21 

by  contact  with  older  native  religion.*  His  father 
brought  him  up  in  ignorance  of  the  wickedness  and 
sorrows  of  the  world.  When  in  his  young  manhood 
he  began  to  study  India  and  its  sorrows,  he  gave  up  his 
princely  life  and  became  a  hermit.  After  years  of 
profound  contemplation  and  painful  self-torture,  he 
became  convinced  that  not  self-torture  but  philan- 
thropy, self-control,  and  other  moral  virtues  were  the 
way  to  soul-peace,  or  Nirvana.  Henceforth  he  gave 
up  his  princely  name,  Gautama,  and  called  himself 
Buddha,  meaning  "  the  enlightened  one."  (2)  He  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life — almost  half  a  century — as  a  teacher, 
wandering  from  city  to  city,  gathering  about  himself 
disciples,  and  striving  to  make  the  world  happier 
through  goodness  and  kindness  and  brotherhood.  He 
denounced  the  caste  system  and  the  distinction  be- 
tween Aryan  and  non-Aryan  as  a  delusion.  Neither 
wealth,  nor  poverty,  nor  sex,  nor  any  other  condition 
was  to  be  a  barrier  to  hope  and  opportunity.  (3)  For 
a  while  Buddhism  swept  corrupted  Brahmanism  fairly 
out  of  place  in  India,  but  although  temples  were  built 
for  Buddha,  and  he  was  worshipped  as  a  god,  Brah- 
manism regained  its  supremacy  in  India. 

HINDU  SCHOOLS 

Brahmanism  defines  the  final  purposes  of  Hindu 
education  in  terms  of  caste,  and  thus  determines  both 
curriculum  and  form. 

Ends  in  View. — The  primary  purpose  of  Hindu 
education  was  to  fit  the  individual  for  life  in  the  par- 
ticular class  into  which  he  was  born.  The  curriculum 
*  Davidson,  "History  of  Education,"  p.  65. 


22  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

and  form  of  education  were,  therefore,  subject  strictly 
to  the  special  ends  in  view  in  each  caste,  namely,  re- 
ligious and  moral  supremacy,  administrative  and  mili- 
tary functions,  agriculture,  art,  commerce,  and  the 
like.  Women  and  Sudras  were  rigorously  excluded 
from  all  formal  educational  privileges.  Birth  rather 
than  talent,  station  rather  than  individuality,  domi- 
nated over  hope. 

Primary  Schools. — The  Hindu  boy  began  to  go  to 
school  at  the  usual  age.  He  took  up  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic,  but  the  subject  par  excellence  was  re- 
ligion. The  school-day  began  and  ended  with  impres- 
sive religious  ceremonies.  School  was  kept  in  the 
open  air,  or  when  that  was  not  permissible,  in  a  cov- 
ered shed.  The  teacher  sat  on  a  grass  mat,  and  the 
pupils  squatted  round  about  him  on  the  ground.  The 
Vedas  furnished  reading  lessons.  These  were  dic- 
tated by  the  teacher  and  repeated  after  a  droning 
fashion  until  memory  was  master.  The  children  wrote 
on  sand,  using  the  finger  or  a  stick.  Later  on  leaves 
were  used  instead  of  sand,  and  presently  paper  with 
ink. 

The  castes  were  kept  separate,  but  in  any  case  the 
teacher  had  to  be  a  Brahman.  The  pupils  were  taught 
to  be  modest  and  polite,  but  discipline  was  mild. 
Drowsiness  rather  than  disobedience  was  the  only 
serious  obstacle  to  progress. 

Higher  Education. — A  course  covering  about  twelve 
years,  and  including  such  subjects  as  grammar,  Htera- 
ture,  mathematics,  astronomy,  medicine,  law,  and  re- 
ligion, was  open  to  the  Brahman's  sons.  Well-planned 
vocational  courses  were  open  to  the  governing  and 
military  classes.     Provisions  were  made  for  the  educa- 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HINDUS        23 

tion  of  artisans,  merchants,  and  even  farmers,  but  these 
were  usually  more  on  the  order  of  apprenticeships. 

Estimate. — 'There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  fitness 
of  means  to  ends  in  Hindu  education.  The  extreme 
self-effacement  to  which  Buddhism  tended  was,  after 
all,  a  sore  offense  to  the  immortality  dimly  evident 
even  to  the  pagan  consciousness,  and  the  dreamy 
quietism  to  which  the  body  of  Buddha's  teaching  drove 
its  most  earnest  devotees  throttled  the  active  powers 
of  the  soul  into  lamentable  slavery.  No  wonder  that 
Buddhism  could  not  hold  its  own  against  Brahmanism 
— no  wonder  that  Buddhism  finds  its  conqueror  in 
Christ !  It  provides  the  masses  with  the  fundamentals 
of  vocational  life  and  religious  morality,  and  thus  pro- 
duces a  sort  of  static  social  stability.  It  provides  the 
great  professions  with  an  admirable  curriculum,  and 
then  makes  them  the  responsible  overseers  of  all  lower 
classes.  The  system  has  produced  marvellous  results 
in  speculative  philosophy,  in  mathematics,  and  even 
in  science. 

The  charges  against  the  Hindu  system  are  serious 
in  the  extreme.  It  offers  almost  everything  to  the 
few,  regardless  of  personal  worth  or  talent,  and  crushes 
individuality,  however  promising,  in  all  the  other 
classes.  Religious  ritualism  has  filled  India  with 
idolatry  and  inhumanity.  The  exclusion  of  physical 
culture  from  the  school  curriculum  has  helped  to  re- 
duce India  to  a  helpless  subject  race.  The  sacrifice 
of  Hindu  woman,  soul  and  body,  is  indescribably 
pathetic. 


24  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 


REFERENCES 

1.  Sanderson's  "World  History  and  Its  Makers,"  vol.  I. 

2.  "Old  Pagan  Civilization,"  "Beacon  Lights  of  History." 

3.  Davidson's  "History  of  Education." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Who  are  the  Hindus?  Explain  their  migration  into  India, 
and  the  loss  of  race-vigor. 

2.  Account  for  the  Hindu  caste  system,  and  describe  the 
castes  in  detail. 

3.  To  what  writings  do  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  Hindu  Brah- 
manism  ?  Explain  the  transition  from  vague  deism  in  the  Vedas 
to  polytheism  and  pantheism. 

4.  What,  according  to  Brahmanism,  is  the  relation  of  the 
human  soul  to  the  supreme  being?  Explain  the  doctrine  of 
transmigration  of  souls. 

5.  Into  what  corruptions  did  Brahmanism  degenerate? 

6.  Who  was  Buddha?  Explain  Buddha  "in  the  making." 
What  did  he  finally  come  to  believe  ?  How  did  he  serve  India  ? 
Explain  his  failure. 

7.  What  is  the  primary  purpose  in  Hindu  education?  What 
are  the  specific  purposes? 

8.  Visit  a  primary  school  of  India,  going  thoroughly  into  the 
details  of  curriculum,  method,  and  discipline. 

9.  Discuss  higher  education,  considering  fitness  of  curriculum 
and  form  to  special  ends  in  view. 

10.  What  were  the  best  things  and  the  worst  things  in  the 
Hindu  system,  as  seen  in  the  light  of  sociology,  Christianity,  and 
world-changes  ? 


CHAPTER  IV 

EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  PERSIANS 

THE  PERSIANS 

The  Medes  preceded  the  Persians  as  a  race,  but  were 
conquered  by  the  latter  and  merged  into  them.  The 
Persians,  like  the  Medes,  were  of  the  same  vigorous 
Aryan  stock  as  the  Hindus,  but  by  making  rugged 
Iran  their  habitat  they  escaped  the  loss  of  vigor  which 
the  Hindus  suffered,  and  matured  into  a  nation  of 
warriors.     Monarchy  was  the  natural  result. 

Kings. — The  one  great  ambition  of  the  Persian 
kings  was  to  build  a  world  empire.  Cyrus  the  Great 
added  Media,  Lydia,  and  Babylonia  to  Persia.  His 
son  Cambyses  added  Egypt.  Darius  extended  the 
kingdom  eastward  to  the  Indus,  and  westward  to  the 
Hellespont,  and  introduced  provincial  governors,  called 
satraps,  to  weld  the  distant  parts  of  his  world  together 
more  firmly.  When  the  armies  of  his  son  Xerxes  were 
hurled  back  from  Greece,  Persian  ambition  had  re- 
ceived a  blow  from  which,  although  it  reappeared  in 
Chosroes  I,  it  never  fully  recovered. 

In  Persia  the  king  was  the  state — his  decree  was  law. 
But  such  was  the  sense  of  Persian  justice,  that  the 
Persians  as  a  social  whole  would  not  permit  their  am- 
bitious kings  to  arrogate  all  power  to  themselves.  To 
this  end  there  was  created  a  kind  of  king's  cabinet, 
or  council  of  empire,  composed  of  princes  and  priests, 
or  magi.     The  king  was  obliged  to  select  his  cabinet 

25 


26  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

princes  from  the  feudal  houses  that  arose  from  wars 
and  conquests.  They  were  thus  the  accredited  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Persian  nobility,  and  by  checking 
the  despotism  which  inevitably  attaches  to  world- 
empire,  they  were,  in  effect,  the  political  representatives 
of  the  Persian  social  whole.  The  priests,  or  magi,  in 
the  king's  cabinet  were  the  representatives  of  God. 
No  other  representatives  could  have  satisfied  the  re- 
ligious sense  of  the  Persians.  In  this  conviction  the 
Persian  consciousness  had  found  the  only  final  guar- 
antee of  personal  and  social  morals,  as  we  moderns 
know  more  completely. 

Religion. — At  their  best,  the  Persians  had  arrived 
at  religious  concepts  startlingly  like  those  of  the 
Hebrews,  or  Jews.  They  believed  in  one  supreme, 
eternal  God,  who  created  all  things,  beneficent  and  all- 
wise,  called  Ormazd  (Ahura-Mazda) ;  and  in  a  personal 
devil,  called  Ahriman  (Angro-mainyus),  the  black  or 
dark  intelligence,  the  creator  of  all  that  is  evil,  both 
moral  and  physical.  They  also  believed  that  Ormazd 
and  Ahriman  were  in  perpetual  conflict,  but  that 
Ormazd  would  finally  prevail  over  Ahriman,  and  that 
the  highest  duty  of  man  was  to  take  sides  with 
Ormazd  in  hoHness,  justice,  and  worship.  In  time 
corruption  set  in,  and  magism,  or  the  worship  of  the 
elements  of  nature,  became  general.  The  most  com- 
mon form  of  worship  was  that  of  fire.  The  Persians 
rejected  all  images,  and  built  no  temples. 

A  collection  of  wondrously  beautiful  poems,  called 
"Avesta,"  embodies  the  above  beliefs  in  much  detail. 
The  magi  corrupted  the  Avesta  with  enlarging  com- 
mentaries. They  wrote  in  Zend,  a  Sanskrit  dialect. 
This  enlarged  Avesta  is  therefore  called  Zend-Avesta, 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  PERSIANS      27 

and  may  be  regarded   as  the  bible  of  the  Persians. 
The  author  of  the  beautiful  Avesta  was  Zoroaster. 

Zoroaster. — Almost  nothing  is  known  about  the  life 
of  Zoroaster.  Some  authorities  consider  him  a  myth. 
A  tablet  recently  unearthed  in  Greece  contains  an 
account  of  his  life  and  doctrines,  and  seems  to  establish 
the  man's  historical  reahty.  There  are  those  who 
think  he  must  have  been  a  contemporary  of  Moses. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  Zoroaster  may  indeed  be  called  the 
Moses  of  the  Persians,  for,  Hke  Moses,  he  perpetuated 
a  knowledge  of  God  and  his  requirements  through  his 
writings,  and  thus  helped  to  make  the  Persians  a  peo- 
ple greatly  like  the  Jews  in  their  morahty. 

EDUCATION 

What  has  been  said  about  the  Persians  themselves 
prepares  us  to  understand  their  system  of  education. 

Ends  in  View. — What  Persia  wanted  most  was  sol- 
diers and  loyal  subjects.  To  this  royal  ambition  the 
social  whole  was  to  be  somewhat  sacrificed,  but  not 
without  justice,  and  generally  speaking  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  indi\^dual,  for  war  and  conquest  brought 
luxury  and  plenty  and  complacency.  The  education 
of  princes  and  priests,  like  that  of  soldiers  and  sub- 
jects, was  most  e\ddently  only  a  means  to  an  end. 

State  Education. — (i.)  No  formal  education  was  pro- 
vided for  the  Persian  woman.  She  was  to  be  the 
mother  of  children  and  a  faithful  home  slave.  At  the 
age  of  seven  her  boys  were  taken  from  home  and  edu- 
cated by  the  state  for  the  state.  They  were  quartered 
in  large  public  institutions  and  provided  with  the  sim- 
ple food   and   clothing   suited   to   the  purpose.     The 


28  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

teachers,  or  overseers,  were  men  who  had  served  the 
state  as  soldiers  up  to  the  age  of  fifty,  and  were  selected 
as  teachers  on  account  of  special  competence  in  knowl- 
edge and  morals.  Reading  and  writing  were  taught 
to  some  extent;  but,  as  special  means  to  ends  in  view, 
physical  culture  and  morals  constituted  the  main 
curriculum.  Running,  riding  on  horseback,  shooting 
with  bow  and  arrow,  were  some  of  the  physical  exer- 
cises. 

Rehgious  proverbs  and  prayers  were  taught  in  con- 
nection with  such  moral  habits  as  obedience,  courage, 
truthfulness,  and  justice.  Cyrus  the  Great  once  told 
his  mother  how  he  had  learned  an  impressive  lesson 
in  justice.  The  boys  were  playing  "court,"  and  Cyrus 
was  judge.  A  bigger  boy  was  brought  to  trial  for 
appropriating  the  coat  of  a  smaller  boy  because  the 
exchange  of  coats  was  "a  better  fit."  Cyrus  as  judge 
approved  of  this  appropriation,  whereupon  the  over- 
seer beat  him  and  reversed  the  decision  because  the 
question  at  issue  was  not  whom  do  the  coats  fit,  but 
to  whom  do  they  belong. 

(2)  From  fifteen  to  twenty-five  the  Persian  boy  was 
subjected  to  systematic  military  training,  after  which 
he  became  an  integral  part  of  the  army,  serving  the 
state  up  to  the  age  of  fifty. 

Higher  Education. — There  was  no  such  thing  as 
higher  education  for  the  Persian  masses.  But  the  high- 
est interests  of  the  state  made  higher  education  an 
absolute  necessity  in  the  case  of  sons  of  nobles  and 
priests.  As  already  indicated,  higher  education  was 
the  function  of  the  priests,  or  magi.  They  were  the 
'^earned  class"  in  a  special  sense.  They  knew  some- 
thing of  astronomy  in  the  form  of  astrology,  and  of 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  PERSIANS      29 

chemistry  in  the  form  of  alchemy.  But  their  special 
function  was  to  perpetuate  a  learned  priesthood  in 
the  interest  of  religion  as  religion,  and  in  the  interests 
of  the  state  as  a  moral  institution  constantly  in  danger 
of  corruption  by  ambition.  It  was  this  very  corrup- 
tion that  finally  doomed  the  Persian  Empire  to  an 
early  and  disgraceful  fall. 

Estimate. — The  merits  of  the  Persian  system  cannot 
be  denied.  Here  was  perfect  fitness  of  curriculum 
and  form  as  means  to  end.  The  self-representation 
of  the  Persians  as  a  social  whole  in  the  form  of  the 
king's  cabinet  is  startlingly  suggestive  of  modern 
social  evolution. 

The  serious  side  to  the  Persian  system  was  the  de- 
liberate neglect  of  the  means  of  popular  intelligence, 
namely  reading  and  writing.  As  a  result,  Persia  con- 
tributed almost  nothing  to  Hterature  and  science,  and 
her  only  imitable  art  is  palace  architecture.  From 
the  fate  of  Persia  we  learn  the  great  truth  that  religion 
and  morals  lose  their  power  over  a  people  weak  in 
intellectual  culture,  and  that  other  now  almost  self- 
evident  truth  that  even  physical  culture  not  intellec- 
tualized  is  only  of  a  lower  order.  To  these  verdicts 
must  be  added  this  other,  that  the  slavish  subjection 
of  woman,  by  hindering  the  moral  function  of  the 
home,  helped  very  materially  to  bring  about  the  moral 
and  political  fall  of  Persia. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  Lord's  "Beacon  Lights  of  History." 

3.  Sanderson's  "World  History  and  Its  Makers." 

4.  Davidson's  "History  of  Education." 

5.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 


30  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Who  were  the  ancient  Persians?  Why  were  they  a  race 
of  warriors? 

2.  What  was  the  great  ambition  of  the  Persian  kings?  Ex- 
plain the  course  of  empire-building. 

3.  What  was  the  function  of  the  king's  cabinet?  How  care- 
fully was  this  function  guarded? 

4.  What  were  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  Persians  at  their 
best  ?  What  was  magism  ?  How  did  Mazdeism  serve  the  high- 
est interests  of  Persia? 

5.  Describe  the  Avesta  and  the  later  Zend-Avesta  ?  Who  was 
Zoroaster  ?     Compare  him  with  Moses  and  other  great  teachers. 

6.  What  was  the  final  purpose  of  Persian  education?  Into 
what  intermediate  purposes  can  you  analyze  the  final  purpose? 

7.  Describe  the  education  of  the  Persian  masses,  accounting 
for  the  whole  curriculum,  its  institutional  character,  the  employ- 
ment of  teachers,  etc. 

8.  Describe  the  higher  education  of  Persian  priests  and  princes, 
accounting  especially  for  the  curriculum  and  the  teachers. 

9.  What  were  the  best  things  and  the  worst  things  in  Per- 
sian education,  judging  from  the  standpoints  of  logical  fitness, 
social  evolution,  contributions  to  after-ages,  and  the  fate  of 
empires. 


CHAPTER  V 

EDUCATION   OF  THE  ANCIENT  SHEMITES 
THE   SHEMITES 

"In  the  Semitic  spirit  there  appear  two  opposite 
elements,  an  irresistible  tendency  toward  self-assertion 
.  .  .  and  the  most  intense  subjectivity,  coupled  with  a 
wealth  of  dreamy  emotionality,  which  often  flames  up 
into  the  loftiest  enthusiasm."  It  is  with  these  words 
that  a  great  German,  Doctor  Schmidt,  in  his  "History 
of  Pedagogy,"  sums  up  the  conspicuous  qualities  of 
the  race,  and  at  the  same  time  furnishes  the  explana- 
tion of  their  contributions  to  civilization. 
y  It  was  not  until  Turanian  culture  had  attained  to 
)/  considerable  heights  in  the  regions  of  Sumer  and  Accad 
that  semisavage  Shemites  from  the  Arabian  desert 
came  and  took  possession.  After  much  fighting  they 
became  masters  of  all  Mesopotamia.  Their  first  fixed 
habitat  was  Chaldea.  Here  "they  built  themselves 
towns  in  the  midst  of  the  Sumerians  and  Accadians, 
gradually  adopting  their  higher  civilization,  and  with 
it  their  system  of  writing,  their  religious  literature, 
and  their  gods,  and  finally  combining  into  a  great 
Chaldeo-Semitic  kingdom,  with  its  centre  at  Babil 
(Babylon).  Later  on,  they  spread  northward  from 
Chaldea  and  founded  the  powerful  empire  of  Assyria, 
with  its  centre  first  at  Ashur,  later  at  Nineveh.  From 
about  2000  B.  C.  to  606  B.  C,  Assyria  was  the  more 
powerful  state,  extending  its  sway  over  the  whole  of 

31 


32  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

western  Asia,  but  after  the  latter  date  Babylonia  once 
more  rose  to  eminence,  only  to  succumb  in  less  than  a 
century  to  the  Persian  Empire  of  Cyrus  the  Great, 
538  B.  C."  *  The  same  fate  which  overtook  imperial 
Rome  when  she  had  conquered  Greece  overtook  these 
empire-building  Assyrio-Babylonians — they  were  con- 
quered themselves.  The  priestly  Turanian  civiliza- 
tion into  which  they  had  come  as  masters  at  length 
mastered  them. 

ASSYRIO-BABYLONIAN   EDUCATION 

In  accordance  with  the  facts  just  stated,  we  may 
define  their  system  as  priestly  education. 

Ends  in  View. — There  was  only  one  great  end  in 
view,  and  that  was  education  for  the  priest  by  the 
priest,  but  the  priest  was  the  scholar  in  other  spheres 
as  well  as  in  his  own,  and  this  fact  enlarged  the  curric- 
ulum very  considerably. 

Curriculum. — We  know  almost  nothing  about  pri- 
mary education  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  except 
that  there  must  have  been  such  a  thing,  preparing  at 
least  for  the  higher  education  of  the  priests.  The 
range  of  subjects  was  strikingly  wide,  including  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  astronomy,  music,  literature, 
philology,  architecture,  painting,  sculpture,  etc.  In 
his  superb  summing  up  of  the  whole  matter  Doctor 
Davidson  shows  that  most  of  these  studies,  together 
with  others,  were  carried  to  surprising  perfection. 

Method. — Higher  education  was  given  in  regular 
schools  or  colleges  in  connection  with  the  temples  and 
libraries.     Their  language,  like  that  of  Egypt,  was  ide- 

*  Davidson's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  50. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  SHEMITES     33 

ograpliic.  The  writing  process  consisted  of  cuneiform 
or  wedge-shaped  impressions  made  upon  soft  clay 
tablets.  The  lessons  in  reading  and  writing  must  have 
taxed  memory  and  patience  to  the  utmost.  Many 
tablets  with  school  exercises  on  them  have  been  found 
in  Babylon.  It  is  thought  that  such  advances  as  the 
Assyrio-Babylonians  made  in  astronomy  must  have 
required  telescopes.  The  complete  appropriation  of 
Babylonian  literature  by  the  Assyrians  was  accom- 
plished by  the  help  of  grammar  and  lexicons,  or  dic- 
tionaries. 

Estimate. — Remnants  of  architecture,  art,  and  liter- 
ature in  the  great  museums  of  the  world  speak  elo- 
quently of  the  power  and  luxury  and  culture  to  which 
the  Assyrio-Babylonians  attained.  Their  literature  in 
particular,  "consisting  chiefly  of  epic  and  lyric  poetry 
of  a  religious  character,  was  marked  by  sublimity,  and 
must  have  exerted  a  powerful  influence."  Unhappily, 
however,  sin  was  not  considered  as  something  wrong 
in  itself,  but  rather  as  an  offense  against  some  unseen 
avenging  power.  In  this  way  craven  fear  rather  than 
moral  freedom  became  the  ethical  motive.  The  re- 
sults were,  of  course,  disastrous,  not  only  to  the  Assyrio- 
Babylonians  but  to  early  Europe,  where  these  false 
impressions  were  carried. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  Graves'  "History  of  Education  Before  the  Middle  Ages." 

3.  Davidson's  "History  of  Education." 

QUESTIONS 

I.  Who  were  the  ancient  Shemites?  What  conspicuous  race 
qualities  help  to  explain  their  contributions  to  civilization? 


34  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

2.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians? 
Explain  the  course  of  empire. 

3.  To  what  extent  did  the  Shemites  succumb  to  the  civiliza- 
tion of  the  conquered  Turanians? 

4.  What,  therefore,  became  the  one  great  purpose  of  Assyrio- 
Babylonian  education? 

5.  Account  for  the  extensive  curriculum  of  this  priestly  sys- 
tem.    If  possible,  study  Davidson's  masterly  summing  up. 

6.  Explain  the  educational  methods  of  the  Assyrio-Babylonians 
pretty  fully. 

7.  What  were  the  contributions  of  Assyrio-Babylonian  edu- 
cation to  material  civilization?  Why  was  their  moral  ideal  so 
serious  ? 


CHAPTER  VI 

EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS 
THE  HEBREWS 

The  Phcenicians  and  Hebrews  were  of  the  same 
Shemitic  stock  as  the  Assyrio-Babylonians,  both  na- 
tions beginning  in  Shemitic  migrations  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Babylon.  The  Phoenicians  had  already 
made  that  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  which  faces 
the  Lebanon  Mountains  their  habitat  when  Abraham 
arrived  in  the  twenty-third  century  B.  C.  Their  com- 
mercial and  colonial  history  is  well  known,  and  could 
have  been  achieved  only  by  a  people  of  intelligence  and 
indomitable  energy;  but  apart  from  the  fact  that  they 
gave  the  world  the  science  of  navigation  and  a  phonetic 
alphabet,  they  have  contributed  nothing  for  which  we 
owe  them  praise.  On  the  contrary,  the  immorahty  of 
their  ideals  is  abhorrent,  and  accounts  not  only  for 
their  fate  at  the  hands  of  Rome,  but  also  for  their 
race  oblivion. 

The  Hebrews,  however,  as  we  shall  see,  deserve  our 
profoundest  thought,  and  serve  as  a  perpetual  moral 
type  for  all  the  world.  They  are  the  descendants  of 
Abraham,  a  Shemite  from  "Ur  of  the  Chaldees,"  who, 
by  divine  injunction,  migrated  with  his  family  to 
Canaan,  now  called  Palestine,  about  2300  B.  C. 

In  Egypt. — After  a  brief  nomadic  sojourn  in  Canaan, 
his  people  as  a  whole  sought  a  new  habitat  in  the  fer- 
tile land  of  Egypt.     This  was  in  the  time  of  his  grand - 

35 


36  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

son  Jacob,  to  whom  and  his  sons  a  Hyksos  king,  also 
a  Semite,  assigned  the  pastureland  of  Goshen,  where 
they  flourished  and  were  happy.  After  the  expulsion 
of  the  Hyksos,  a  Hamite  king,  "who  knew  not  Joseph," 
reduced  the  Hebrews  to  slavery.  From  this  slavery 
God  delivered  his  people  by  the  hand  of  Moses,  his 
servant.  The  stirring  events  of  the  exodus,  or  de- 
parture from  Egypt,  are  familiar  history.  The  exodus 
was  the  real  beginning  of  nationality  under  theocracy 
for  the  chosen  people.  A  period  of  forty  years,  des- 
tined to  be  passed  in  the  wilderness,  as  means  to  ends 
in  the  religious  and  moral  development  of  the  social 
whole,  punctuated  by  numerous  moral  crises  of  sin 
and  grace,  was  ushered  in  by  the  institution  of  a  priest- 
hood in  the  person  of  Aaron,  the  brother  of  Moses, 
and  by  the  Mosaic  giving  of  the  "Law."  A  new  and 
hardier  race  emerged  from  the  hardships  and  the  les- 
sons of  the  wilderness.  Finally,  after  many  tests  of 
faith  this  unique  people,  led  by  Joshua,  was  permitted 
to  reoccupy  the  "promised  land,"  about  thirteen  or 
fourteen  hundred  years  before  Christ. 

In  the  Promised  Land. — This  "promised  land"  was 
partitioned  into  twelve  tribal  provinces,  to  correspond 
with  the  number  of  the  patriarch  Jacob's  sons.  The 
threatening  attitude  of  the  Philistines,  only  partially 
conquered,  taken  in  connection  with  their  common  re- 
lation to  the  true  God,  should  have  suggested  the 
closest  possible  federation,  but  frequent  dissensions 
defeated  this  end,  and  exposed  the  tribes  separately 
to  their  powerful  enemies.  Under  these  circumstances 
local  chiefs,  or  judges,  raised  up  by  God  himself, 
sometimes  attained  to  considerable  intertribal  recog- 
nition, but  the  conviction  that  only  monarchy  could 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS  37 

save  them  from  conquest  by  the  Philistines  grew  and 
grew  until  at  last,  about  1095  B-  C.,  the  chosen  people 
begged  God  through  Judge  Samuel  to  grant  them  a 
king,  and  God  gave  them  Saul. 

Kings. — King  Saul,  a  Benjamite,  was  of  giant 
stature  and  a  born  warrior,  who  soon  reduced  chaos  to 
order.  A  strong  feeling  of  nationality  now  began  to 
take  possession  of  the  tribes.  Through  the  "  prophets," 
organized  by  Samuel  into  "schools,"  theocracy  main- 
tained the  ascendancy  over  nationaHty  for  more  than 
a  century.  When  death  deprived  the  king  of  Samuel's 
guidance,  Saul  gradually  degenerated,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded, after  a  reign  of  forty  years,  by  David,  a  Judah- 
ite.  This  warrior  and  poet  did  much  during  his 
reign  of  forty  years  that  made  for  permanency  of  re- 
ligious and  political  conditions.  His  brilliant  son 
Solomon,  also  reigning  forty  years,  produced  a  ''golden 
age,"  but  succumbed  to  the  fatal  seduction  of  com- 
mercial and  political  foreign  relations.  The  accession 
of  his  weak  and  insolent  son  Rehoboam  in  930  B.  C., 
caused  the  ten  northern  tribes  to  revolt.  Thus  arose 
the  separate  kingdom  of  "Israel,"  with  Samaria  as  the 
capital.  The  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  remained 
loyal  to  the  house  of  David,  with  Jerusalem  as  the 
capital. 

Exile. — This  defection  in  nationality  was  a  blow  to 
the  ideal  of  theocracy  and  eventually  caused  the  down- 
fall of  both  kingdoms.  The  "ten  tribes"  were  carried 
away  in  720  B.  C.,  by  the  Assyrians,  and  became  "the 
ten  lost  tribes."  In  586  B.  C.  the  Babylonians  stormed 
Jerusalem,  destroyed  the  temple,  and  carried  the  peo- 
ple away  captive  into  Babylon.  The  captivity  was 
a  wonderful  discipline.     It  taught  this  remnant  of  the 


38  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

chosen  people  the  importance  of  returning  to  God. 
Such  spiritual  return  became  possible  through  a  code 
of  traditional  rulings  written  down  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  and  called  Thorah.  In  536  B.  C,  as  a  fulfil- 
ment of  prophecy,  it  is  believed,  Cyrus  the  Great,  con- 
queror of  Babylon,  allowed  the  Jews,  as  they  began 
to  be  called,  to  return  to  Jerusalem. 

Restoration. — Perhaps  this  restoration  of  the  chosen 
people  was  to  be  their  last  grand  opportunity  to  per- 
fect an  ideal  theocracy.  Be  that  as  it  may,  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  produced  another  golden  age.  It  was  in 
this  period  that  the  scribes  (Scripture  scholars)  com- 
posed the  voluminous  commentary  on  "Moses  and  the 
Prophets,"  known  as  the  Talmud,  a  body  of  moral  and 
religious  prescription.  But  the  sun  of  Jewish  glory 
was  soon  to  set  again,  the  voice  of  prophecy  was  stilled, 
and  the  race  settled  into  a  moral  stupor  from  which 
even  the  peril  of  subjugation  by  contending  world- 
empires  could  not  wake  it.  In  323  B.  C,  after  Alex- 
ander's death,  his  general,  Ptolemy,  made  the  Holy 
Land  a  province  of  Macedonia.  The  Syrians  were  the 
next  masters.  The  Maccabees  (142-64  B.  C.)  set  up 
a  brief  independency,  but  all-conquering  Rome  finally 
made  Judea  a  province,  and  after  a  series  of  insurrec- 
tions Jerusalem  was  captured  and  the  temple  destroyed 
by  Titus  in  the  year  70  A.  D.  Since  then  the  chosen 
people  have  been  the  "wandering  Jews,"  a  race  with- 
out a  home — an  empire  without  a  capital — destroyed, 
they  still  live!  Taken  in  connection  with  the  com- 
mission which  called  the  nation  into  being,  the  unique 
nomadism  to  which  the  preceding  pages  call  our  atten- 
tion, can  mean  only  one  thing,  namely,  that  the  Jew 
is  a  national  envoy  extraordinary  of  the  true  God. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS      39 

Religion. — "In  this  people  we  have  the  worship  of 
the  one  spiritual  God — Jehovah — the  purely  One. 
With  other  Eastern  nations,  the  primary  and  funda- 
mental existence  was  nature;  but  that,  with  the  He- 
brews, becomes  a  mere  creature,  and  spirit  is  foremost. 
God  is  the  creator  of  nature  and  of  all  men,  the  only 
first  cause  of  all  things.  God  was  honored,  and  could 
be  honored  only  by  righteousness,  the  reward  of  which 
was  to  be  happiness  "here  and  hereafter."  * 

The  Old  Testament  is  the  embodiment  of  this  re- 
ligion by  "Moses  and  the  prophets,"  and  by  singers  and 
historians.  Taken  in  connection  with  the  Talmud  as 
a  commentary,  a  commentary  in  which  the  law  and 
the  prophets  were  all  too  frequently  brought  to  no 
effect  by  the  traditions  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees, 
as  Jesus  tells  us,  the  Old  Testament  constitutes  the 
Jewish  Hterature  par  excellence.  Out  of  its  truth,  and 
its  fulfilment  in  Christ,  grew  the  New  Testament. 
Apart  from  a  knowledge  of  these  Holy  Scriptures,  the 
great  Jewish  historian  Josephus  would  become  unin- 
teUigible. 

JEWISH   EDUCATION 

The  course  of  history,  together  with  the  religion  to 
w^hich  attention  has  been  called,  prepares  us  to  un- 
derstand Jewish  education  as  a  system  of  means  to 
ends. 

Ends  in  View. — The  primary  purpose  in  Jewish 
education,  as  we  are  now  prepared  to  see,  was  to  pro- 
duce a  God-serving,  moral  race  of  men.  God's  chosen 
people  were  therefore  required  to  know  the  true  God 
in  order  that  they  might  serve  him  intelligently,  lov- 
*  Sanderson's  "World  History  and  Its  Makers,"  p.  56. 


40  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

ingly,  and  freely.  To  this  triple  end  the  means  were 
selected  with  great  fitness. 

Family. — There  were  no  such  things  as  formal  schools 
before  the  restoration  from  Babylonian  exile.  Up  to 
that  time  the  home  was  held  responsible  for  the  pri- 
mary education  of  Jewish  boys  and  girls.  The  father, 
as  we  read  in  Holy  Writ,  was  required  to  teach  read- 
ing and  writing.  Reading,  because  it  was  a  key  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  was  the  subject  which  above  all  others 
served  the  purposes  of  Jewish  education.  Singing  was 
a  favorite  subject.  The  boys  had  to  learn  arithmetic 
and  a  trade,  and  the  girls  were  trained  in  domestic 
service. 

Festivals. — Three  great  yearly  festivals  of  the  Jews 
were  an  integral  part  of  their  educational  system. 
These  were  held  at  Jerusalem,  and  every  male  Jew 
was  required  to  attend.  The  feast  of  Passover  re- 
hearsed the  thrilling  story  of  the  deliverance  from 
Egyptian  bondage;  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  the  majestic 
giving  of  the  ''Law"  in  the  wilderness;  and  the  feast 
of  Tabernacles  rehearsed  the  gracious  favors  of  God 
providing  food  and  protection  for  his  children  on  the 
way  to  the  promised  land.  These  dramatic  recitals 
kept  alive  the  memory  of  God's  dealing  with  the  fathers 
and  thus  inflamed  the  hearts  of  the  children  with  the 
same  abiding  love  that  prompted  them  to  serve  God 
willingly. 

Schools  of  the  Prophets. — King  Saul's  great  adviser, 
Samuel,  organized  what  are  known  as  "the  schools  of 
the  prophets."  These  schools  were  something  like  the 
modern  institutes  and  religious  summer  schools.  The 
sessions  were  movable,  convenience  and  other  matters 
dictating  the  selection  of  localities.     Here  inspired  men 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS   41 

of  God  convened  for  a  season  to  improve  themselves 
by  mutual  instruction  in  religion,  lyrics,  etc.,  in  order 
that  they  in  turn  might  carry  God's  messages  down  to 
the  people.  This  higher  educational  movement  con- 
tinued for  five  centuries,  bringing  inestimable  good  to 
religion  and  the  nation.  Even  kings,  like  David,  as 
we  see  by  effects  on  his  psalms,  were  patrons  of  these 
schools.  Academies  of  high  rank  sprang  up  after- 
ward, as  in  GamaHel's  time. 

Post-Exile  Schools. — Pro\'isions  for  higher  education 
were  made  shortly  after  the  return  from  Babylon,  and 
in  connection  with  the  synagogues  which  Ezra  founded. 
Henceforth  the  scribes,  rather  than  the  prophets,  be- 
came the  educational  leaders,  and  the  curriculum  was 
very  much  enlarged,  including  philosophy,  literature, 
science,  and  presently  Greek. 

It  v/as  not  until  several  centuries  before  Christ  that 
primary  schools  in  the  common  meaning  of  that  term 
becam^e  the  custom.  Their  function  was  to  supple- 
ment, not  to  displace,  home  training,  and  to  prepare 
for  higher  education.  The  subjects  already  included 
in  the  family  schooling  were  very  much  enriched,  the 
poor  and  the  rich  alike  were  admitted,  and  the  scribes 
as  teachers  employed  methods  that  command  modern 
respect.  These  instructors  recognized  and  respected 
the  individuahty  of  the  pupil,  and  appUed  with  con- 
siderable skill  what  to-day  we  call  the  doctrine  of  cor- 
relation of  sense-impressions.  Strange  to  say,  corporal 
punishment  was  not  administered  to  pupils  over  eleven 
years  of  age. 

Estimate. — The  Jewish  system  of  education,  as  was 
to  be  expected,  was  a  most  admirable  selection  of  means 
to  ends.     It  is  true  that  the  introduction  of  monarchy 


42  fflSTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

was  somewhat  inconsistent  with  theocracy  as  an  edu- 
cational ideal,  but,  in  effect,  the  kings  were  God's 
representatives,  and  whenever  the  interests  of  the 
nation  as  a  social  whole  or  the  moral  freedom  of  the 
individual  were  seriously  threatened  by  these  represen- 
tatives, they  were  openly  denounced  by  the  prophets 
of  God,  or  repudiated  and  rejected,  as  in  Saul's  case. 

The  Jewish  system  of  theocratic  morality  was  im- 
measurably superior  to  pagan  morality,  where  super- 
stition too  commonly  stifled  conscience,  the  voice  of 
God  within,  and  where  fear  of  external  force  too  com- 
monly destroyed  freedom.  As  a  social  whole  the 
"chosen  people"  probably  never  attained  to  this  high 
ideal,  but  that  was  due  to  the  taint  of  long  contact 
with  the  magism  of  Egypt  and  frequent  contact  with 
the  same  corrupting  thing  even  in  the  promised  land. 
To  make  matters  worse,  the  well-meaning  but  mis- 
taken zeal  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  the  accredited 
and  responsible  teachers  of  morals,  too  often  had  the 
same  vitiating  results. 

It  is  also  true  that  science  as  such  was  not  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  theocratic  curriculum,  that  with 
the  exception  of  music,  art  as  such  and  physical  cul- 
ture had  no  place  at  all  in  the  system,  and  that  litera- 
ture was  almost  exclusively  religious;  but  there  were 
high  and  holy  reasons  for  these  apparent  defects  in 
curriculum.  The  chief  reason,  and  the  one  implied  in 
all  others,  was  the  necessity  of  institutional  defense 
against  the  idolatry  latent  in  the  Semitic  stock,  and 
constantly  pressed  upon  the  chosen  people  from 
without. 

The  developed  pedagogy  of  the  Jews,  as  already  in- 
dicated, is  surprising,  and  must  be  regarded  as  a  dis- 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS   43 

tinct  contribution,  pointing,  as  it  does,  to  serious  pur- 
suit along  the  same  lines. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  Sanderson's  "World  History  and  Its  Makers." 

3.  Lord's  "Beacon  Lights  of  History." 

4.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

5.  Graves'  "History  of  Education  Before  the  Middle  Ages." 

6.  Davidson's  "History  of  Education." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Who  were  the  Phoenicians?  Describe  their  educational 
ideal  and  the  specific  contributions  of  these  ancients. 

2.  Who  are  the  Hebrews,  or  Jews  ?  Describe  the  unique  course 
of  their  national  development  in  Egypt,  in  the  Wilderness,  in 
the  promised  land,  under  kings,  in  exile,  in  their  restoration  to 
the  Holy  Land,  and  in  their  world-dispersion. 

3.  Compare  the  religion  of  the  Jews  with  that  of  other  Oriental 
nations.     What  was  its  effect  on  literature? 

4.  What,  in  accord  with  their  religion,  and  as  manifest  in 
their  unique  national  development,  was  the  primary  purpose 
of  education  among  the  ancient  Jews? 

5.  Explain  the  educational  function  of  the  ancient  Jewish 
family,  going  into  the  details  of  curriculum  and  methods. 

6.  Describe  the  great  Jewish  festivals  and  explain  their  edu- 
cational function. 

7.  Describe  the  origin,  curriculum,  and  pedagogy  of  the  schools 
of  the  prophets. 

8.  What  provisions  for  higher  education  were  made  after  the 
return  from  Babylonian  captivity?  Go  into  the  details  of  cur- 
riculum and  pedagogy. 

9.  Describe  the  post-exile  primary  schools  of  the  Jews,  going 
into  the  details  of  curriculum  and  pedagogy. 

10.  Discuss  the  effect  of  monarchy  on  the  theocratic  ideal  of 
education. 

11.  Compare  the  Jewish  theocratic  ideal  of  morality  with  that 
of  pagan  systems,  and  account  for  the  historical  miscarriage. 


44  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

12.  Account  for  the  apparently  defective  curriculum  of  Jewish 
education. 

13.  What  was  the  character  of  the  later  pedagogy  of  the  Jews? 
Was  it  a  distinct  contribution  to  modern  education? 


CHAPTER  VII 

EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS 
THE  GREEKS 

In  very  ancient  times  a  Turanian  people,  later  called 
Pelasgians,  who  had  not  wholly  lost  the  original 
religious  ideas  of  their  earliest  forebears,  occupied 
the  country  afterward  known  as  Greece.*  At  a 
time  near  the  dawn  of  history  they  were  conquered 
in  part  and  driven  into  mountain  regions  or  desert 
places  by  a  number  of  tribes  of  Semites,  who  brought 
with  them  the  supernaturalism  of  their  race  in  re- 
ligion, and  became  a  sort  of  tribal  empire  under  the 
Pelopids.  This  brings  us  down  to  about  iioo  B.  C, 
the  reputed  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  By  that  time 
Aryans  from  the  steppes  of  eastern  Russia  and  Thes- 
saly,  kin  to  the  Hindus  and  Persians  in  Asia,  had  be- 
come somewhat  allied  with  the  admixture  of  Turanian 
Semites.  The  Trojan  war,  in  which  it  appears  they 
sided  with  their  Asiatic  kin,  weakened  them,  and  the 
Aryans,  later  known  as  Hellenes,  taking  advantage  of 
this  weakness,  and  reinforced  by  their  kinsmen  from 
the  north,  conquered  them.  In  time,  the  Hellenes, 
coming  into  close  association  with  the  conquered 
Turano-Semitic  people,  adopted  much  of  their  higher 
civilization,  but  imposed  upon  it  their  own  Aryan  in- 
dividualism, into  which  they  gradually  merged  com- 
pletely.    Centuries   were   passing,    and  the  Hellenes, 

*  Davidson's,  "History  of  Education,"  p.  88. 
45 


46  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

now  (800-700  B.  C.)  settled  more  and  more  firmly  in 
valleys  separated  by  mountains,  became  separated 
into  many  tribes — the  city-states  of  history — chief 
among  them  the  war-loving  Dorians  and  the  beauty- 
loving  lonians.  This  tribal  separateness  produced 
tribal  wars  and  tribal  competitions  in  the  Aryan  indi- 
vidualisms  of  the  race  that  have  never  ceased  to  as- 
tonish and  command  the  thinking  world. 

The  Dorians,  making  Sparta  the  centre  of  a  social 
whole,  including  many  allied  tribes,  and  the  lonians, 
making  Athens  the  centre  of  another  social  whole 
which  included  many  allied  tribes,  became  bitter  rivals 
for  supremacy. 

Then  (492-479  B.  C.)  came  the  Persian  wars,  which 
threatened  to  engulf  Greek  individualism  in  Oriental 
despotism.  Athens  and  Sparta,  recognizing  the  com- 
mon peril,  forgot  their  rivalry  and,  fighting  side  by 
side  at  Marathon,  Thermopylae,  and  Salamis,  bravely 
saved  freedom. 

In  order  to  hberate  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  and 
adjoining  islands,  the  far-seeing  Themistocles  organ- 
ized an  Ionian  league,  the  famous  confederacy  of  Delos, 
with  Athens  at  the  head.  Sparta  was  excluded  from 
this  confederacy,  and  Athens  became  immensely  rich 
through  the  assessments  apportioned  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  league.  The  great  Athenian  statesman, 
Pericles,  in  spite  of  protests,  used  the  wealth  of  Athens 
to  increase  her  strength  and  enhance  her  glory.  Under 
his  patronage  Athens  became  the  "seat  of  learning," 
and  a  "city  beautiful."  Then  it  was  that  builders  and 
sculptors  and  painters  vied  with  each  other  to  create 
forever  inimitable  specimens  of  art.  And  it  was  then* 
that  letters  and  science  and  philosophy  attained  to  a 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS   47 

richness  of  production  never  surpassed  by  any  people. 
It  was  the  golden  age  of  Athens  (445-431  B.  C.).* 

But  the  glory  of  Athens  came  to  a  premature  end. 
Her  ambition  had  overreached  itself.  Sparta,  resent- 
ing the  course  which  events  had  taken,  and  moved  by 
race  bias,  determined  to  crush  her  proud  rival.  And 
thus  came  the  fratricidal  Peloponnesian  War  (431-404 
B.  C).  The  great  Pericles,  perishing  in  the  siege  of 
Athens,  with  which  the  war  began,  left  no  one  great 
enough  to  save  Athens.  Her  fall  in  404  B.  C.  was  a 
blow  from  which  she  never  fully  recovered.  Sparta 
had  become  supreme. 

It  is  true  enough  that  Thebes,  under  the  inspiration 
of  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas,  destroyed  this  suprem- 
acy in  371  B.  C,  but  Thebes  and  Athens  combined 
could  not  save  Greek  freedom.  PhiHp  of  Macedon 
destroyed  it  at  Chaeronea,  338  B.  C.  Under  Roman 
patronage  Athens  regained  her  intellectual  supremacy, 
but  lost  it  through  the  Ptolemies  at  Alexandria. 

Religion. — The  individualism  of  the  Greeks,  to  which 
special  attention  has  been  called,  accounts  for  the  in- 
tellectual, emotional,  and  moral  character  of  Greek 
religion.  The  freedom-loving  Greek  with  whom  we 
have  to  do  in  his  wars  and  supremacies  becomes  the 
beauty-loving  and  self-expressive  Greek  in  religion. 
With  this  conception  mastered,  we  shall  be  ready  to 
understand  and  appreciate  Greek  life  and  Greek  educa- 
tion as  a  system-  of  means  and  ends. 

Gods. — The  beauty  of  nature  that  "wrapped  him 
round  about"  intoxicated  his  senses  and  entranced  his 
mind.  His  lively  imagination  came  to  the  rescue  of 
reason  and  created  lovely  gods  in  human  shape.     This 

*  See  Myers'  "General  History"  for  details. 


48  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

attempt  to  express  religious  conceptions  and  emo- 
tions in  human  forms  really  amounts  to  self-worship, 
with  nothing  beyond  it  except  the  greater  than  human 
perfection  which  the  Greek,  though  not  always,  at- 
tributed to  his  gods.*  Among  the  great  gods  were 
Zeus  (the  Roman  Jupiter),  god  of  the  air;  Hera  (the 
Roman  Juno),  the  queen  of  Zeus;  Apollo,  the  sun- 
god;  Poseidon  (the  Roman  Neptune),  the  sea-god; 
Ares  (the  Roman  Mars),  god  of  war — and  so  on,  almost 
without  end.  Athena  (the  Roman  Minerva),  goddess 
of  wisdom;  Aphrodite  (the  Roman  Venus),  goddess  of 
love,  and  others  show  how  the  Greek  mind  deified  in 
a  poetic,  artistic  way  all  human  perfections.  The 
nine  muses  (Euterpe,  Calliope,  Terpsichore,  etc.) 
deify  human  talents.  The  Greek  world  was  literally 
crowded  with  minor  deities.  The  lively  Greek  imagi- 
nation deified  almost  every  manifestation  of  beauty  in 
nature.  The  flying  clouds  became  Centaurs,  human- 
headed  horses;  the  earthquakes  were  the  work  of 
Cyclops,  Vulcan's  blacksmiths;  Conscience  became  the 
Furies;  the  beautiful  seasons  became  three  Graces 
(beautiful  maidens) ;  life  and  death  were  controlled  by 
Fates,  etc.  The  nature  materials  of  this  elaborate 
polytheism  are  intimately  dependent  on  early  Semitic 
influence,  as  the  Semitic  names  employed  and  a  care- 
ful study  of  Homer's  characters  clearly  show.  The 
distinctively  Aryan  thing  in  this  nature-worship  is  the 
beauty-loving,  self-expression. | 

No  Future  State. — Early  contact  with  European 
Turanians  left  in  the  Aryan  Greek  some  vague  belief 
in  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments,  as  we  see 

*  Lord's  "Ancient  Religions." 

t  Davidson's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  87. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS   49 

in  such  gods  as  Hades,  Proserpina,  Castor,  etc.  A 
careful  study  of  Greek  poetry  and  art  reveals  no  seri- 
ous recognition  of  immortality.  It  is  only  when  we 
come  to  the  later  speculations  of  the  philosophers,  as 
in  Socrates,  that  we  find  this  idea. 

Morality. — The  absence  of  the  idea  of  immortality 
— no  heaven,  no  hell,  no  god  that  cares  much — robs 
Greek  religion  of  all  its  value  as  a  moral  motive,  and 
accounts  for  the  moral  superficiality  of  Greek  civiliza- 
tion. The  Greek  prayed  to  his  gods  as  we  do  to  the 
true  God,  but  he  prayed  for  favors  wanted  now — not 
hereafter.  When  his  self-made  gods  became  quite 
real  to  the  Greek  imagination  he  would  even  pray  for 
help  in  trouble. 

Oracles. — This  was  the  origin  of  the  Greek  oracles, 
as  at  Delphi  and  Dodona,  where  temples  were  erected 
to  Apollo  and  Zeus  respectively,  and  where  priests 
were  stationed,  who  should  interpret  and  declare  the 
will  of  the  gods. 

The  Greek  temples,  like  the  statues  of  the  gods 
within,  were  "dreams"  of  beauty,  and  as  such  they 
were  veritable  acts  of  worship.  Everything  that  art 
could  accomplish  by  architecture,  sculpture,  and  paint- 
ing, was  done  to  perfect  these  temples. 

The  Greek  priests  were  not  a  hereditary  caste,  as 
among  the  Hindus  or  in  Egypt.  They  were  appointed 
officials.  This  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
Asiatic  forebears  of  these  Aryan  Greeks  had  never 
become  subject  to  Semitic  domination.  And  yet  the 
influence  of  these  priests,  politically  and  otherwise, 
incredible  as  it  may  seem,  especially  in  the  case 
of  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  was  one  time  all  but  world- 
wide. 


50  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Sacred  Games. — The  lively  Greek  imagination  which 
created  the  gods  endowed  them  with  so  much  reality 
that  worship  in  the  form  of  beautiful  temples  was  not 
enough.  Sacred  games — religious  festivals,  were  there- 
fore instituted  as  another  mode  of  worship.  In  their 
final  form  these  games  consisted  of  contests,  physical 
and  mental,  for  which  prizes  were  offered,  thus  to  stim- 
ulate perfections  which  would  please  the  gods. 

The  Olympian  festival,  held  on  the  plain  of  Olym- 
pia,  not  far  from  Sparta,  was  instituted  776  B.  C,  and 
occurred  every  four  years.  The  prizes  offered  pro- 
moted physical  culture  throughout  Greece  so  much 
that  the  Greek  body  I  ecame  the  ideal  of  the  sculptors. 
The  other  festivals — the  Pythian  to  Apollo,  the  Isth- 
mian to  Poseidon,  and  the  Nemean  to  Zeus,  offered 
prizes  to  poets,  orators,  historians,  etc.,  thus  promot- 
ing every  variety  of  beautiful  self-expression,  which, 
we  repeat,  was  the  highest  Greek  ideal. 

OLD   GREEK   EDUCATION 

Justice  to  special  features  of  Greek  education  be- 
fore the  age  of  Pericles  calls  for  treatment  under  three 
heads,  namely,  the  age  of  Homer,  Sparta,  and  Athens. 

Age  of  Homer. — The  Hellenic  tribes  who  had  over- 
come the  Turano-Semitic  population  of  Homeric 
Greece,  adopted  the  civilization  of  the  conquered  peo- 
ple almost  bodily,  as  a  careful  study  of  Homer's  Iliad 
and  the  Odyssey  prove.  From  these  sources  we  know 
that  the  Hellenic  education  of  that  period  was  patri- 
archal— the  father  taught  his  son  to  worship  the  gods 
and  to  serve  the  tribal  state  in  war,  while  the  mother, 
supervised  the  education  of  her  daughter,  teaching  hei3" 


EDUCATION  OF  THE   ANCIENT  GREEKS        51 

religion  and  the  life  of  a  soldier's  wife.  The  morals  of 
boys  and  girls  were  carefully  guarded.  Books  and 
schools  had  not  yet  come  to  Greece — Hfe  itself  was 
education  both  in  purpose  and  as  means.  The  free- 
dom-loving, beauty-worshipping,  and  self-expressive 
individualism  of  later  history  was  present,  but  the  hero 
and  his  wife  were  the  sole  object  of  this  beauty-wor- 
ship. 

SPARTA 

Tradition  would  have  it  that  the  Dorians  had  made 
the  Peloponnesus  their  tribal  habitat  long  before  the 
Trojan  war,  but  that  they  had  been  exiled  to  the 
north.  Their  return,  known  as  the  Dorian  Migration,* 
evidently  constitutes  the  major  part  of  the  final  tri- 
umph of  Hellenism  over  Semitism  in  Greece. 

Spartan  Social  System.  —  Finding  the  so-called 
Achasans— probably  Pelasgians — in  possession  of  their 
early  home,  the  Dorians  promptly  ousted  them.  The 
new  city  which  the  Dorians  now  built — Sparta — be- 
came the  centre  of  the  social  whole,  and  the  Dorian 
conquerors  became  known  as  Spartans.  The  conquered 
Achaeans,  a  farm  folk,  were  allowed  to  live  round  about 
'.  the  city,  and  became  known  as  the  Perimci.  The 
-Spartan  rulers  taxed  them,  but  allov/ed  them  no  voice 
in  government.  Some  of  the  conquered  folk  were  re- 
duced to  slavery  in  the  special  sense  of  the  word,  and 
called  Helots. 

SPARTAN  EDUCATION 

There  was  one  man  among  the  Spartans  who  saw 
ghat   the   Spartan   social   system   imperilled   the  per- 


12  *  Myers' "  Generalfiistoiy 


_  I  O  «  A  R  V 

SFAIt  •;  /KMAL  SChO(»L 

«A,'<iJAL  /'.M-.S   A-4U  HOME  £C0N0K1(. 

SAM! A  «A«8AKA,  CALIFUHNIA 


52  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

petuity  of  Dorian  supremacy.  This  man  was  the 
celebrated  Lycurgus,  about  800  B.  C.  In  the  consti- 
tution which  he  now  drew  up  for  the  Spartans  he  ac- 
cordingly embodied  provisions  for  an  educational 
system  that  should  cover  the  situation.  All  these  pro- 
visions had  one  special  end  in  view. 

Final  Purpose. — In  his  provisions  for  Spartan  edu- 
cation, Lycurgus,  adopting  almost  bodily  the  Pelas- 
gian  culture  to  which  the  Greeks  had  fallen  heir,  but 
utterly  at  variance  with  the  higher  claims  of  Greek  in- 
dividualism, became  an  exponent  of  Oriental  mili- 
tarism. In  other  words,  he  would  dedicate  the  in- 
dividual— soul  and  body — to  the  good  of  the  social 
whole.  Every  boy  must  accordingly  be  trained  for 
war,  and  every  girl  must  be  trained  almost  like  a  boy. 

Infancy. — The  state  took  charge  of  the  Spartan  boy 
from  birth.  A  council  of  elders  inspected  the  child. 
If  he  was  defective  in  any  way  he  was  exposed  to  die 
in  some  mountain  glen,  unless  adopted  by  the  Perioeci 
or  the  Helots.  If  he  was  allowed  to  live  he  was  com- 
mitted to  the  charge  of  his  mother  up  to  the  age  of 
seven,  when  the  state  took  formal  charge  of  his  educa- 
tion. 

Physical  Culture. — The  Spartan  boy  was  now  housed 
with  others  in  public  quarters  serving  the  same  pur- 
pose as  our  modern  barracks,  and  his  boy-life  super- 
vised by  state  officials  known  as  "boy-trainers."  All 
the  details  of  his  body  life  were  ordered  according  to 
the  one  end  in  view,  namely,  physical  fitness  for  war. 
With  this  end  in  view,  he  was  required  to  sleep  on  pal- 
lets of  straw,  or  rushes  plucked  by  the  boy  himself 
from  the  banks  of  the  Eurotas.  He  was  a  "barefoot 
boy"  all  the  year  round,  and  after  the  age  of  twelve 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS   53 

his  simple  dress  consisted  of  a  single  garment.  He 
was  often  required  to  go  hungry,  but  encouraged  at 
the  same  time  to  forage  for  food.  If,  however,  he  was 
caught  in  the  process,  he  was  beaten  to  encourage 
craftiness. 

Spartan  physical  culture  included  a  graded  system 
of  gymnastics,  beginning  with  running,  jumping,  and 
playing  ball,  to  which  throwing  the  discus,  hurhng  the 
javelin,  and  wrestHng  were  added  as  the  boy  grew 
older.  Occasionally  the  wrestling  matches  became 
combats,  and  the  boys  were  actually  encouraged  to 
resort  to  biting,  kicking,  gouging,  etc/  The  boys  were 
also  trained  in  "squad"  work  under  boy-captains,  to 
whom  absolute  obedience  must  be  rendered.  Inas- 
much as  the  course  in  gymnastics  was  an  open-air 
affair  crowds  of  spectators  were  not  uncommon,  and 
this  served  as  a  powerful  stimulus. 

Morals. — The  Spartan  boy  was  required  to  obey 
orders  under  all  sorts  of  difficult  situations.  As  he 
grew  older  he  had  to  learn  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  to- 
gether with  the  religious  and  moral  prescriptions  of 
Homer.  This  tended  to  produce  respect  for  the  ex- 
isting order  of  things.  The  Spartan  cultivated  a 
beautiful  reverence  for  old  age,  so  much  so  that  it 
was  "a.  pleasure  to  grow  old  in  Sparta."  Modera- 
tion, temperance,  self-control  in  any  shape  was  con- 
sidered a  cardinal  virtue.  Courage  in  danger,  even 
to  death,  as  in  the  case  of  Leonidas  at  Thermopylae, 
was  held  up  as  the  great  ideal. 

Lycurgus,  beheving  that  foreign  commerce  would 
destroy  the  morals  of  Sparta,  reduced  it  to  the  mini- 
mum by  requiring  the  Spartans  to  use  "iron  money," 
which  foreigners  were  loath  to  accept. 


54  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Intellect. — Reading  and  writing  hardly  constituted 
a  part  of  the  Spartan  curriculum,  but  that  did  not  save 
the  boy  from  thinking.  According  to  the  laws  of 
Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  boys  were  obliged  to  take  their 
meals — if  such  they  may  be  called — with  the  grown-up 
men,  at  public  tables.  Here  the  affairs  of  the  state, 
together  with  religion  and  morals,  were  freely  discussed 
by  the  men.  The  strictest  attention  was  required  on 
the  part  of  the  boys.  Questions  followed,  and  if  any 
boy  could  not  answer  them  correctly  he  was  punished. 
It  was  expected,  moreover,  that  the  answers,  like  the 
questions,  should  be  right  to  the  point.  All  the  rules 
of  the  public  tables  tended  to  produce  mental  alert- 
ness, nicety  of  judgment,  quick  perception  of  means 
to  ends,  etc.,  in  short,  a  very  oractical  sort  of  intel- 
lectual culture. 

Music. — This  term,  as  used  among  the  Greeks, 
covers  anything  over  which  a  "muse"  presides,  that 
is,  letters,  or  literature  in  the  widest  sense,  together 
with  music  in  the  special  sense.  The  Spartans,  how- 
ever, looked  with  favor  only  on  religious  and  war  music. 
The  former  was  often  learned  in  connection  with  choral 
dances;  the  latter  with  war-dances  and  epic  poetry. 
In  these  exercises  the  girls  were  sometimes  allowed 
to  join  with  the  boys. 

Spartan  Women. — Although  the  Spartan  girls  were 
allowed  to  live  at  home,  their  education  was,  in  most 
respects,  like  that  of  the  boys.  The  curriculum  in- 
cluded religion,  morals,  and  home  virtues,  together 
with  music  and  dancing,  and  a  course  in  physical  cul- 
ture that  ran  into  some  coarseness  but  certain^"  served 
its  purpose. 

Estimate. — Spartan  education  tended  to  produce  a 
powerful  social  whole,  but  it  sacrificed  the  individual 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS        55 

to  the  state,  and  the  mind  to  the  body,  and  thus  failed 
to  contribute  anything  in  science,  art,  or  philosophy, 
to  future  ages.  Through  this  arrest  of  development 
Greece  would  have  reverted  to  barbarism,  had  Athens 
not  saved  her  from  this  fate. 


ATHENS 

The  Greek  race — perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  say 
Greek  individualism — is  seen  to  the  best  advantage 
among  the  lonians.  With  them — especially  in  Ionian 
Athens — beauty  became  deified,  and  the  worship  of 
beauty  a  religion.  The  beauty  of  nature  furnished  the 
lively  imagination  of  the  Greek  with  many  gods,  but 
the  forms  in  which  he  created  them  were  really  daring 
attempts  at  self-expression.  All  his  arts,  including 
architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  poetry,  oratory,  to- 
gether with  his  sciences  and  philosophy,  were  simply 
additional  forms  of  self-worship  and  self-expression. 

Democracy. — The  Ionian  Greeks — and  this  is  only 
another  case  of  Greek  individualism — were  the  first 
race  to  attempt  democracy. 

Their  political  history  began,  as  among  the  Dorians, 
with  tribal  monarchy,  a  common  Pelasgian  heritage. 
The  untainted  Aryanism  of  the  lonians  had,  however, 
stood  in  the  way  of  complete  assimilation.  The  transi- 
tion from  monarchy  to  democracy  is  one  of  the  most 
fascinating  chapters  in  psychology.  The  archons  who 
succeeded  the  mythical  king  Codrus  represented  an 
elective  compromise  with  hereditary  monarchy  (1050 
B.  C).  The  laws  of  Draco  and  Solon  were  successive 
stages  in  the  delivery  of  the  social  whole  from  the 
elective  archons,  for  these  archons  were  really  an 
aristocratic    remnant    of    monarchy,    and,   recognized 


56  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

as  such,  they  could  not  satisfy  the  longing  of  the 
social  whole  for  complete  democracy.  The  so-called 
"tyrants"  of  Athens  were  rather  popular  usurpers 
than  real  reversions  to  monarchy.  They  failed  ut- 
terly when  Hippias,  son  of  Pisistratus,  became  a 
despot.  In  Cleisthenes'  restoration  of  Solon's  laws 
(507  B.  C.)  Ionian  monarchy  succumbed  permanently 
to  democracy. 

This  strong  Ionian  leaning  toward  democracy,  allied 
with  that  other  love,  the  love  of  beauty,  constitutes  the 
explanation  of  Athenian  education  as  a  system  of  means 
to  end.  The  system  dates  back  almost  to  the  age  of 
the  mythical  Cadmus  and  his  Phoenician  alphabet, 
and  it  reaches  its  climax  in  the  golden  age  of  Pericles. 

ATHENIAN   EDUCATION 

Ionian  education  and  Dorian  education,  as  their 
common  origin  would  lead  us  to  think,  were  almost 
identical  in  outline,  or  curriculum,  but  the  special  ends 
in  view  enriched  the  common  means  and  perfected 
them  as  special  means. 

Ideals. — The  special  end  in  view  in  Ionian,  or  Athe- 
nian education  was,  as  we  are  now  prepared  to  see, 
the  perfect  individual.  This  individual  perfection 
included  soul  and  body — the  two  perfectly  related  in 
strength  and  beauty.  The  physical  perfection  at 
which  the  true  Athenian  aimed  would,  of  course,  serve 
the  purposes  of  war  and  thus  the  interests  of  the  state, 
but  the  underlying  concept  was  that  perfection  of  the 
body  had  most  intimate  connection  with  perfection 
of  the  mind.  And,  with  true  Athenians,  as  already 
intimated,    the   perfect   mind   was   a   freedom-loving, 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS   57 

beauty-worshipping,  and  self-expressive  mind.  It  was 
this  well-proportioned  and  symmetrical  perfection, 
with  all  its  implications,  that  was  ever  present  and  at 
work  in  curriculum  and  methods. 

Home. — We  feel  the  presence  of  this  aim  from  the 
very  beginning  of  an  Athenian  child's  education — it 
began  in  play,  i.  e.,  effort  for  the  sake  of  pleasure — 
free  self-expression.  Among  his  plays  as  among  ours 
were  leap-frog,  rolling  hoops,  riding  on  a  hobby-horse, 
etc.,  while  the  girls  played  with  jacks,  dolls,  etc. 

Childhood. — At  the  age  of  six  the  Athenian  boy — 
not  the  girl — began  to  go  to  school.  And  the  whole 
boy — body  and  soul — were  put  to  work.  A  trusted 
slave,  called  pedagogue,  or  boy-leader — a  sort  of  physi- 
cal and  moral  chaperon — accompanied  the  boy,  watched 
over  him,  carried  his  writing  materials  and  his  lyre, 
and  saved  him  from  truancy. 

Up  to  the  age  of  fifteen  the  Athenian  boy's  school 
consisted  of  a  teaching-place  called  didascaleum,  and 
a  place  probably  close  by  called  the  palastra.  Re- 
quired by  the  state,  primary  education  was  neverthe- 
less not  supervised  by  the  state.  The  teacher  was, 
therefore,  a  private  individual,  who  used  his  own 
house,  or  some  rented  room,  for  the  school,  and  received 
his  pay  from  the  father  of  the  boy. 

Intellect. — Reading,  writing,  and  counting,  together 
with  music,  religion,  and  morals,  constituted  the  cur- 
riculum for  mental  culture.  By  the  addition  of  vowel 
letters  the  Greeks  completed  the  Phoenician  alphabet, 
to  which  they  had  fallen  heir,  into  a  much  better  edu- 
cational means  than  the  ideographs  of  Oriental  sys- 
tems. And  yet  reading  was  harder  to  learn  than  now 
because    accents,    punctuation,    and    word-separation 


58  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

had  not  been  invented.  "When  the  boy  had  learned 
his  letters  by  tracing  them  in  sand  he  was  taught  to 
copy  verses  and  selections  from  well-known  authors, 
at  first  upon  wax-tablets  with  a  stylus,  and  later  on 
parchments  with  pen  and  ink."  It  was  only  in  the 
later  centuries  that  Athenian  arithmetic  amounted  to 
more  than  counting.  This  was  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  Greek  alphabet,  with  diacritical  marks 
as  a  supplement,  constituted  the  clumsy  system  of 
notation. 

Morals. — It  is  a  striking  fact  in  Greece  that  the 
priest  was  not  also  the  teacher  as  in  Oriental  nations. 
In  spite  of  this  fact  the  Greek  mind  included  religion 
and  morals  in  their  perfection-producing  curriculum. 
The  Homeric  poems  became  the  Greek  bible,  and  were 
used  as  means  in  religious  and  moral  instruction. 
Suitable  portions  had  to  be  recited  and  committed. 
In  order  to  heighten  the  emotional  effect,  these  selec- 
tions were  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  lyre. 

Music. — In  the  Athenian  curriculum  music  served 
the  ideal  of  human  perfection  in  at  least  three  ways — 
by  heightening  the  emotional  effect,  it  reinforced  re- 
ligious and  moral  instruction,  as  just  explained. 
Through  the  proper  selection  of  epics  and  lyrics  in  the 
religious  and  moral  instruction  substitution  of  good 
for  evil  emotions,  and  therefore  emotional  purity  was 
possible.  The  Greeks  beHeved,  as  we  believe,  that 
because  music  urges  soul  and  body  into  intimate  re- 
lations it  is  the  highest  form  of  beautiful  self-expression. 

Physical  Culture. — The  fact  that  the  school  curric- 
ulum of  Athens  included  a  good  deal  of  physical  cul- 
ture explains  why  the  school-day  was  an  all-day  pro- 
gramme  without   injury   to    the   boy's   health.     The 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS        59 

exercises  were  selected  as  means  to  ends  in  physical 
beauty— running  and  jumping,  for  example,  were  se- 
lected for  symmetry,  throwing  the  discus  for  general 
adjustment,  hurling  the  javelin  for  poise,  and  dancing 
coupled  with  music  for  grace.  The  palaestra  was  care- 
fully supervised  as  a  preparation  for  higher  courses. 

Youth. — The  education  of  an  Athenian  boy  usually 
ended  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  except  in  the  case  of  wealthy 
boys,  or  for  leadership.  This  higher  course  in  physi- 
cal culture  was  prescribed  by  the  state,  and  offered  in 
state  gymnasia  located  just  outside  the  city.  The 
course  was  called  the  pentathlon,  meaning  five  exercises 
in  physical  strength.  It  consisted  of  a  complex  plan 
in  running,  jumping,  throwing  the  discus,  hurling  the 
javehn,  and  wrestling.  The  last  of  them,  as  in  Sparta, 
sometimes  developed  into  real  fights. 

We  look  in  vain  for  a  corresponding  higher  course 
in  mental  culture.  It  was  not  until  the  golden  age  of 
Pericles  had  come  that  we  hear  of  grammar,  mathe- 
matics, and  philosophy.  Nevertheless,  the  Athenians 
correlated  with  this  gymnasium  course  a  course  in 
mental  culture  that  commands  the  attention  of  the 
twentieth  century.  The  gymnasium  did  not  demand 
all  of  the  young  man's  time.  He  was  then  free  to  go 
where  he  pleased.  This  brought  him  much  in  contact 
with  public  men,  moralists,  etc.  The  golden  age  of 
Pericles  added  courts  and  theatres  and  orators  and 
artists  and  writers  and  philosophers  to  the  young 
man's  educational  opportunities. 

Manhood. — At  the  age  of  eighteen  the  Athenian  boy 
was  admitted  into  probationary  citizenship.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  a  two  years'  course  in  military  train- 
ing.    Apprenticeship  in  arms  for  a  year  in  the  city 


60  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

garrison  was  followed  after  examination  by  a  year  of 
frontier  service.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  took  the 
Solonian  oath  of  citizenship,  and  was  merged  into  the 
common  life  of  Athens,  a  democracy  of  freemen  from 
the  highest  rights  of  which,  alas,  four  times  as  many 
boys  were  excluded  by  the  tragedy  of  slavery. 

Athenian  Women. — The  Athenian  system  of  educa- 
tion made  almost  no  provisions  for  women.  The  home 
and  life  as  she  found  them  in  Athens — with  almost  as 
little  personal  freedom  as  the  slave — were  the  Athenian 
woman's  only  educational  opportunities.  And  when, 
in  the  golden  age,  Athenian  women  tried  to  steal  an 
education,  they  were  looked  upon  with  suspicion. 

Estimate. — Individual  perfection,  with  due  respect 
for  the  social  whole,  is  probably  the  highest  end  in 
view  in  education,  but  the  Athenian  failed  to  perfect 
such  an  individuality  because  his  rehgion  could  not 
supply  the  final  moral  guarantees. 

It  was  partly  due  to  this  religious  and  moral  failure 
that  Athens  debased  her  educational  ideal  by  the  in- 
ferior place  allotted  to  woman,  and  by  her  system  of 
slavery,  for  through  both  of  these  failures  Athenian 
individualism  denied  the  rights  of  the  social  whole. 

The  unerring  selection  of  fundamentals  in  curriculum 
and  methods  as  means  to  ends  has  scarcely  been  sur- 
passed by  the  educational  experts  of  the  twentieth 
century. 

Christianity,  offering  the  largest  possible  freedom  to 
individuality,  with  an  equal  promise  of  democracy  to 
nations  small  and  great,  this  correlate  freedom  lead- 
ing to  the  highest  possible  progress  in  true  science, 
was  "the  one  thing  needful"  on  the  way  to  **the  one 
far-oflf  divine  event"  for  which  the  world  was  waiting. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS       61 

The  Jewish  system  was  the  bridge  which  Providence 
and  psychology,  if  we  mistake  not,  built  across  the 
great  chasm. 

THE   NEW  EDUCATION 

The  Graeco-Persian  War  brought  Greece— especially 
Athens — into  the  world-stream.  The  new  ideas  which 
came  to  the  city  through  foreign  commerce  and  foreign 
connections  of  every  sort,  together  with  the  great  fact 
that  Pericles  made  Athens  a  seat  of  learning,  induced 
Greek  individualism  to  run  wild.  Faith  in  gods 
created  by  imagination  gave  way  to  doubt  and  then 
to  despair.  Rebellious  individuaUty  no  longer  recog- 
nized its  obligations  to  the  social  whole,  and  Athens 
as  a  city-state  was  losing  all  coherence.  This  condition 
of  things  produced  new  teachers  known  as  Sophists. 
It  was  their  hope  to  adjust  education  to  the  new 
conditions. 

SOPHISTS 

The  word  sophist  means  wise  teacher,  or  specialist 
in  teaching.  The  Greek  Sophists  were  usually  learned, 
well-travelled  non-Athenians  who  were  attracted  to 
the  metropolis  by  the  opportunities  to  teach.  The 
"new  age"  was  a  great  opportunity  for  young  men 
who  had  talent  for  oratory  and  politics.  The  Soph- 
ists, professing  great  proficiency  in  matters  of  this 
sort,  were  therefore  in  much  demand  at  Athens — ■ 
especially  among  young  men  of  gymnasium  age. 
These  young  men  attached  themselves  to  the  new 
teachers  and  their  new  ideas  with  adolescent  hero- 
worship.     Special  stress  was  laid  on  argument.     De- 


62  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

batable  subjects  in  politics,  ethics,  etc.,  were  used 
as  means  to  ends.  In  the  debating  process  truth  was 
often  sacrificed  to  words,  for  the  laws  of  thought  had 
not  yet  been  formulated,  and  specious  rhetoric — ^flights 
of  oratory — could  seduce  the  heart  and  cheat  the  head. 
There  were  able  and  noble  Sophists,  such  as  Pro- 
tagoras, a  favorite  of  Socrates,  and  when  they,  with 
"new  Athens,"  which  indeed  they  helped  to  create, 
had  tasted  the  vanity  of  outward  beauty  and  propriety, 
they  turned  to  inward  beauty,  or  truth,  and  thus 
paved  the  way  for  philosophy. 

The  conservatives  were  bitterly  and  justly  offended. 
They  saw  the  need  of  new  and  better  moral  guarantees, 
and  therefore  the  need  of  a  new  and  better  curriculum, 
and  would  no  doubt  have  welcomed  an  effective  recon- 
ciliation between  the  failing  claims  of  the  Athenian 
social  whole,  or  state,  and  the  riotous  claims  of  the  new 
Athenian  individuality.  But,  to  begin  with,  the  Soph- 
ists, defying  all  tradition,  accepted  pay  for  teaching ! 
And  then,  if  we  may  touch  the  climax  of  things  at 
once,  they  repudiated  the  study  of  theology  and  sci- 
ence. Protagoras,  their  best  representative,  expressed 
this  repudiation  as  follows:  "As  to  the  gods,  we  know 
not,"  and  "Man  (individual  man)  is  the  measure  of 
things."  It  is  no  wonder  therefore  that  thoughtful 
men  were  shocked  and  offended.  It  is  true  that  the 
Greek  mind  had  tried  to  find  "the  solution  of  things" 
as  early  as  the  stimulating  century  of  Cleisthenes, 
just  before  the  Persian  War.  This,  for  example,  was 
the  case  with  Pythagoras,  but  an  explanation  of  the 
world  to  the  correction  of  which  the  Sophists  addressed 
themselves  was  far  more  difficult,  and  therefore  prob- 
ably far  more  attractive.     The  attempt  produced  such 


EDUCATION  OF  THE   ANCIENT  GREEKS        63 

truth-seekers,    or    Philosophers,    as    Socrates,    Plato, 
Aristotle,  and  others. 

PYTHAGORAS 

Pythagoras,  the  great  forerunner  of  Greek  philos- 
ophers, was  born  on  the  island  of  Samos,  580  B.  C, 
and  died  about  500  B.  C.  He  was  fortunate  in  his 
teachers.  Among  them  were  the  honored  sages  Thales 
and  Anaximander.  Then,  too,  it  was  possible  for  him 
to  travel  extensively.  It  is  said  that  he  went  as  far 
east  as  India.  In  Egypt,  as  the  historian  Grote  tells 
us,  he  became  profoundly  impressed  with  the  secret 
doctrines  of  God  and  immortality,  to  which  as  an 
inner  circle  some  of  the  priests  adhered.  In  view  of 
the  fine  training  and  his  exceptional  association  with 
the  profoundest  thinkers  of  other  lands,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  Pythagoras  beheved  he  had  found  the 
solution  of  the  world's  woes  in  holy  harmony. 

At  Crotona. — In  order  to  embody  his  ideal  in  a 
select  social  whole  and  thus  to  demonstrate  its  efficiency 
as  a  world-remedy,  he  estabhshed  a  school  at  Crotona, 
a  Greek  city  in  southern  Italy.  It  is  not  known  just 
why  he  preferred  Crotona  for  his  experiment,  but 
perhaps  he  wanted  to  get  away  from  the  beaten  path, 
and  knew  that  the  colonial  city  could  furnish  him  with 
young  men  more  suited  to  his  purposes.  The  brother- 
hood of  disciples  into  which  Pythagoras  organized  his 
school  was  a  secret  society  subject  to  strict  ascetic 
rule.  The  "perfect  hfe"— made  so  by  the  harmony 
which  he  would  teach  them — was  the  end  in  view. 
He  was  therefore  careful  to  receive  into  the  school 
only  young  men  of  marked  ability  and  good  morals. 
The  Crotona  curriculum  included  all  studies  that  ex- 


64  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

plained  harmony  or  made  for  harmony.  Thus,  mathe- 
matics was  studied  as  an  explanation  of  the  ''harmony 
of  the  spheres,"  music  was  studied  for  soul-rhythm, 
ethics  for  moral  harmony,  philosophy  for  harmony 
with  God,  etc.  The  unique  pedagogy  of  Pythagoras 
deserves  attention.  He  graded  his  instructions  into 
two  courses,  the  exoteric,  or  preparatory  course,  which 
lasted  three  years,  and  the  esoteric,  or  deeper  course. 
He  would  not  appear  face  to  face  before  his  students 
in  the  exoteric  course,  but  addressed  them  from  be- 
hind a  curtain.  This  method  was  based  on  the  be- 
lief that  his  scholarship  was  a  sufficient  appeal  to 
younger  men,  that  it  was  enough  for  them  if  he  said  it. 
Thus  arose  among  his  disciples  the  celebrated  "ipse 
dixit"  which  settled  any  argument.  He  associated 
very  intimately  with  his  "initiated"  disciples.  To 
them  he  spoke  face  to  face,  relying  powerfully  on  his 
personality.  He  had  found  the  two  great  qualifica- 
tions of  the  professional  teacher,  but  his  divorce  of  the 
two  was  a  forced  pedagogy,  to  say  the  very  least. 

What  became  of  his  house  and  of  Pythagoras  per- 
sonally is  not  exactly  known,  but  when  at  length  this 
learned  brotherhood,  "masters  of  all  the  sciences 
known,"  and  who  therefore  looked  upon  themselves 
as  an  intellectual  and  moral  aristocracy,  became 
tangled  deeply  in  politics,  its  members  were  driven  as 
fugitives  into  all  parts  of  Italy  and  Greece.  It  con- 
tinued to  exist  for  some  three  centuries  a  deep  and 
abiding  influence. 

SOCRATES 

It  would  be  hard  to  find  another  celebrated  man 
who  has  been  as  ungraciously  mahgned*  by  his  critics 

*  Sanderson's  "World  History  and  Its  Makers." 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS       65 

and  as  gratuitously  idealized  as  Socrates.  This,  with 
motives  that  we  cannot  always  appreciate,  has  hap- 
pened because  both  his  critics  and  his  worshippers 
have  been  able  to  make  his  contemporary  biographers 
— his  own  disciples — say  opposite  things.  Unpreju- 
diced comparison  of  his  biographers,  especially  Plato 
and  Xenophon,  probably  fixes  the  truth  just  between 
the  conclusions  of  his  critics  and  his  worshippers. 

In  the  Making. — Socrates  was  born  in  Athens  469 
B.  C,  and  died  there  399  B.  C.  His  father  was  a 
sculptor — perhaps  what  we  should  consider  a  stone- 
cutter— and  the  boy  followed  his  father's  occupation. 
As  son  of  an  Athenian  citizen,  he  must  have  received 
the  usual  education  of  the  palaestra  and  the  didis- 
caleum,  and  even  if— as  may  have  been  the  case — 
he  found  himself  unable  to  take  advantage  of  the 
gymnasium  and  the  higher  mental  opportunities  to 
which  youths  of  that  period  had  access,  he  grew  to 
manhood  in  the  best  period  of  the  golden  age.  A  boy 
of  his  known  mental  caliber  would  find  "life  itself" 
in  such  an  age  an  educational  opportunity  of  the 
highest  order.  The  sobering  effect  of  Hfe  as  a  heavy- 
armed  soldier  in  the  Peloponnesian  War  must  have 
helped  powerfully  to  shape  his  well-known  moral  con- 
ceptions. Some  authorities  believe  that  his  concep- 
tion of  God  as  a  supreme  being,  almost  in  our  sense 
of  the  word,  and  his  belief  in  immortahty,  were  due 
to  contact  with  the  teachings  of  Pythagoras.  In  out- 
ward appearance,  as  all  his  biographers  agree,  Soc- 
rates was  conspicuously  and  notoriously  ugly,  as  even 
Xantippe  must  have  recognized  when,  unhappily  for 
her  and  himself,  she  accepted  him  as  spouse,  but  in 
soul  he  was  beautiful  and  true  and  good,  seeking  after 
God  and  immortality. 


66  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Services. — The  Sophists,  in  the  language  of  their 
best  representative,  Protagoras,  had  assumed  that 
''Man  (individual  man)  is  the  measure  of  all  things," 
thus  making  each  man  a  law  to  himself  in  thinking 
and  morals.  There  could  not  then— if  this  assumption 
proved  correct — be  any  truths  except  individual  con- 
clusions, and  there  could  not  then  be  any  laws  of 
character.  The  world  was  still  "a  world  of  chance." 
Socrates — and  this  gives  us  a  true  view  of  the  great 
thinker  himself — challenged  the  assumption  of  Pro- 
tagoras. He  said  "Man  (the  genus  man)  is  the  meas- 
ure of  things."  In  other  words,  we  can  "measure 
things" — understand  the  universe  in  all  its  manifold 
relations — by  induction.  Whether  applied  to  psy- 
chology and  ethics,  as  in  the  specific  uses  which  Soc- 
rates made  of  the  method,  or  to  nature  and  mathe- 
matics, this  is  our  modern  "laboratory  method." 
Socrates  had  thus  given  to  true  philosophy  its  highest 
goal  and  pointed  out  the  way.  In  his  practical  ap- 
plication of  the  inductive  method — and  this  is  his 
special  claim  on  us  here — Socrates  employed  two 
modes  of  teaching.  Accosting  some  man  in  the 
market-place  or  on  the  street,  or  wherever  the  busy 
world  of  Athens  offered  him  a  chance,  he  would  sud- 
denly ask  some  one  a  question,  and  then  another,  and 
another,  until  the  last  replies  flatly  contradicted  first 
replies.  This  was  his  favorite  method  with  the  Soph- 
ists, whose  pretensions  he  would  thus  purposely 
expose  to  ridicule,  and  it  is  known  as  Socratic  irony. 
It  leaves  a  sting,  and  should  therefore  be  only  spar- 
ingly used  to-day,  if  at  all.  With  earnest  inquirers  he 
used  a  somewhat  different  method — the  true  inductive 
method  of  inquiry.     It  is  known  as  the  Maieutic,  or 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS        67 

developing  method.  In  this,  the  "true"  Socratic 
method,  he  would  employ  a  series  of  questions  that 
required  the  learner  to  think  "facts"  for  himself,  and 
then  by  laboratory  collocation  the  class  truths  or 
"definitions"  to  which  such  facts  lead  up.  This 
method  was  in  startling  harmony  with  modern  "apper- 
ception," and  the  skill  with  which  he  used  it  gives  Soc- 
rates a  high  place  among  the  princely  teachers  of  all 
ages. 

The  method  has  its  limitations,  as  in  the  teaching 
of  facts  that  the  learner  cannot  think  for  himself, 
and  as  when  used  to  "quibble"  or  cover  ignorance  in 
the  teacher,  and  it  may  lead  to  serious  failure.  The 
use  which  Socrates  made  of  it  too  frequently  himself, 
coupling  it  with  hateful  irony,  in  the  end  cost  him  his 
life. 

PLATO 

The  three  best-known  disciples  of  Socrates  were 
Plato,  Xenophon,  and  Alcibiades.* 

In  the  Making. — Plato's  real  name  was  Aristocles. 
The  surname  Plato  may  mean  broad-browed  or  broad- 
shouldered.  He  was  born  at  Athens  427  B.  C,  and 
died  there  347  B.  C.  He  could  trace  his  descent  from 
Solon  and  away  back  to  Codrus.  To  this  aristocracy 
of  birth  his  family  added  that  of  wealth,  and  Plato 

*  The  last  one,  by  a  course  of  life  that  shamed  even  voluptuous 
Athens,  helped  to  bring  great  discredit  on  the  moral  influence  of  Soc- 
rates. Xenophon,  on  the  contrarj--,  reflects  great  honor  on  his  teacher 
through  three  charming  books:  the  "Anabasis,"  the  "Memorabilia," 
and  the  "Cyropedia."  In  the  second  of  these  books  Xenophon  is  his 
teacher's  biographer.  The  "Cyropedia,"  as  we  now  know,  was  an  Athe- 
nian exile's  attempt  to  recommend  the  best  features  of  the  Spartan 
system  to  Athens  under  the  literary  pretense  of  recommending  the  best 
features  of  Persian  education  to  Sparta. 


68  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

therefore  had  every  opportunity  to  acquire  the  cul- 
ture which  the  golden  age  afforded  him.  Endowed 
with  gifts  of  body  and  mind,  he  became  conspicuously 
proficient  in  ''gymnastics,"  literary  culture  including 
"music,"  and  in  "letters,"  including  the  arts  and 
sciences.  "The  fermentation  and  stir  of  adolescence" 
tempted  him  to  express  himself  in  poetry.  At  the  age 
of  twenty  he  first  came  under  the  magic  touch  of  Soc- 
rates. The  young  man,  moved  by  the  power  of  the 
new  touch,  and  by  a  serious  comparison  of  his  works 
with  Homer,  destroyed  most  of  his  poems — thousands 
of  them — and  turned  seriously  to  philosophy.  From 
this  time  forward  for  ten  years — until  the  teacher's 
death — Plato,  greatly  encouraged  by  Socrates,  was 
his  most  promising  pupil.  His  studious  life  in  this 
period  was  somewhat  like  that  of  a  conscientious  and 
ambitious  college  boy  of  the  twentieth  century.  After 
the  death  of  his  great  teacher  "he  gathered  up  his 
effects  and  went  on  a  lengthy  journey  from  Athens."  * 
His  visits  included  Egypt,  where,  as  in  the  case  of 
Pythagoras,  he  may  have  drunk  deeply  at  the  fountain 
of  learned  priests.  After  his  return  to  Athens  he  vis- 
ited Sicily  three  times,  and  perhaps  the  great  Pythag- 
oras. Whatever  else  may  have  helped  to  make  Plato, 
he  was  pre-eminently  the  disciple  of  Socrates,  and  as 
such  a  seeker  after  "the  measure  of  things" — a  phi- 
losopher— an  idealist  of  the  noblest  order. 

The  Academy. — At  length,  about  forty  years  of  age, 
he  began  his  life-work  at  Athens.  The  busy  market- 
place had  no  charm  for  this  cultured  man.  A  little 
way  from  the  city  was  a  quiet  grove,  the  "Akademia." 
Here  it  was  that  Plato,  like  Pythagoras,  lectured  to  a 

*  "World  History  and  Its  Makers." 


EDUCATION   OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS        69 

very  select  body  of  disciples  on  life,  the  future  state 
God,  immortality,  and  responsibility. 

The  "  Republic." — We  know  to-day — sucn  are  the 
conclusions  of  psychology — that  the  feeUngs  or  emo- 
tions are  the  springs  of  action,  and  that  when  emo- 
tion amounts  to  passion,  a  knowledge  of  what  is  right 
or  best  is  not  always  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  right 
action,  or  virtue.  But  Plato,  Hke  Socrates  before  him, 
failed  to  take  account  of  these  relations,  and  therefore 
concluded  that  "knowledge  is  virtue."  In  other 
words,  they  both  held  that  as  soon  as  any  one  really 
knows  what  is  absolutely  right  and  best  he  will  do 
without  fail  what  is  right  and  best. 

But  Plato,  unlike  his  great  master,  held  that  only 
the  few  can  ever  hope  to  think  the  concepts,  or 
' '  ideas, ' '  of  which  such  knowledge  must  consist.  There- 
fore, as  a  solution  of  the  strained  relations  between 
Greek  mdividuality  and  the  state  as  a  social  whole, 
he  planned  a  system  of  education  for  the  state  by  the 
state — a  system  that  should  make  the  future  state  a 
perfect  state.  It  was  to  be  a  caste  system  to  which 
the  educational  systems  of  Sparta  and  Athens  should 
both  contribute  what  was  best. 

As  Plato  saw  things,  the  ideal  state  as  a  social 
whole  must  be  composed  of  only  three  classes  of  in- 
dividuals; namely,  those  who  can  serve  her  best  in  the 
"living"  industries;  those  who  can  serve  her  best  as 
soldiers  for  defense,  and  those  who  can  serve  her  best 
as  statesmen,  or  rulers.  What  each  class  needs  is 
"education  for  efficiency,  boys  and  girls  alike."  The 
"industrials"  will  have  to  consist  of  those  people  who 
have  little  capacity  for  higher  things;  the  soldiers  of 
those  who  have  capacity  for  war  and  the  courage  it 


70  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

requires,  and  the  rulers  must  consist  only  of  those 
individuals  who  have  special  talent  for  philosophic 
wisdom. 

This  ideal  state  was  to  decide  questions  of  marriage 
and  the  right  of  children  to  live.  Every  healthy  boy 
and  girl  was  to  have  as  much  education  as  Athens 
offered  in  the  palaestra  and  the  didiscaleum,  ''with 
some  slight  modifications  of  content."  At  the  end  of 
this  period  the  least  capable  were  to  be  "sifted  out." 
or  eliminated,  by  examinations.  Those  who  stood 
the  tests  well  enough  were  to  continue  their  education 
in  physical  culture  and  military  discipline  until  twenty, 
boys  and  girls  alike.  During  this  period  the  mind 
was  not  neglected  for  the  body,  for  Plato  saw,  what 
we  see  to-day,  that  the  courage  of  the  best  soldier  is 
as  much  a  matter  of  mind  as  of  body.  At  twenty 
years  of  age  a  final  selection  determined  who  was  to 
be  the  soldier  and  who  the  philosopher,  or  ruler.  The 
education  of  the  latter  was  to  be  continued  for  fifteen 
more  years,  special  stress  being  laid  on  geometry, 
literature,  or  "music,"  and  philosophy  proper. 

Estimate. — This  proposed  system  was  never  ac- 
cepted by  Athens,  and  late  in  life  Plato  revised  it  in  a 
book  called  "Laws."  Plato  believed  that  his  system 
of  elimination  would  provide  the  state  with  efficient 
service,  and  that  such  efficiency,  based  on  special 
talent,  served  the  highest  interests  of  individual  hap- 
piness. In  theory  this  looks  plausible  enough,  for 
even  if  the  diagnosis  upon  which  the  state  must  rest 
her  placements  of  the  individual  makes  mistakes,  the 
"misfits"  would  be  far  less  numerous  than  usual. 
But  the  classification  of  individuals  into  only  three 
classes  was  too  narrow  for  Athens,  and  would  be  too 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS   71 

narrow  for  any  age.  To  make  the  matter  worse, 
Plato's  proposed  system  would  not  educate  woman 
for  herself  as  a  woman,  thus  striking  a  fatal  blow  at 
an  individuality  that  is  of  absolute  importance  to 
society. 

ARISTOTLE 

The  fascinating  biography  of  Aristotle,  as  any  one 
can  find  for  himself,*  reads  more  like  fiction  than 
fiction  itself. 

In  the  Making. — He  was  born  at  Stagira,  Macedonia, 
in  384  B,  C,  and  died  about  322  B.  C.  His  father 
was  court  physician  to  Philip,  King  of  Macedon,  and 
put  the  boy  into  the  hands  of  a  teacher  to  whose 
precious  memory  Aristotle  later  erected  a  monument. 
The  bright  boy  became  an  orphan  at  an  early  age, 
and  after  spending  all  his  patrimony  in  a  hurry,  en- 
tered the  army  a  mere  boy.  He  soon  tired  of  camps 
and  barracks,  and  did  not  know  what  to  make  of  him- 
self. In  his  perplexity  he  consulted  the  oracle  of 
Delphi,  and  was  promptly  told  to  go  to  Athens  and 
study  philosophy.  Here,  only  eighteen  years  of  age, 
small  in  stature,  and  not  physically  attractive,  this 
learned  physician's  son  became  the  eager  disciple  of 
Plato.  He  was  a  born  student,  precocious  and  in- 
tensely active.  Plato  called  him  the  "intellect  of  his 
school."  The  world  has  long  confirmed  this  judgment 
and  honors  him  as  "the  Alexander  of  the  intellectual 
world."  He  remained  with  Plato  for  twenty  years, 
revering  him  in  life  and  erecting  to  his  memory  a 
monument  of  love.  The  Academy  lost  its  charm  for 
Aristotle  when  the  master  died,  and  he  continued  his 
*  "World  History  and  Its  Makers,"  vol.  IV. 


72  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

studies  for  three  years  at  the  court  of  King  Hermias, 
son  of  his  own  first  tutor.  King  Hermias  was  con- 
quered and  killed.  Aristotle  now  made  the  sister  his 
wife  and  moved  to  lovely  Mytelene.  From  here  he 
was  called  by  King  Philip  to  be  his  son's  tutor  at  the 
palace  of  Stagira.  He  was  now  ripe  in  years,  learning, 
and  experience,  and  his  success  as  a  tutor  for  four  years 
was  phenomenal. 

The  "  Lyceum." — Presently,  when  fifty  years  of 
age,  Aristotle,  perhaps  with  some  ambition  to  become 
the  head  of  the  Academy,  returned  to  Athens.  In 
the  meantime,  Alexander  on  his  marches  had  put  to 
death  a  friend  of  the  great  philosopher,  and  the  result- 
ing coldness  of  relations  between  the  former  teacher 
and  his  pupil  probably  kept  Aristotle  from  becoming 
the  head  of  the  Academy.  He  therefore  opened  a 
school  of  his  own  in  a  suburban  grove,  called  "Lyceum," 
after  a  fane  of  Apollo  erected  within.  The  subjects 
which  he  offered  suggest  and  foreshadow  the  range  of 
our  universities.  He  specialized  in  physics,  includ- 
ing mathematics,  together  with  physiology,  biology, 
politics,  psychology,  and  philosophy  proper,  but  was 
equally  at  home  in  the  literature  and  fine  arts  of  the 
golden  age. 

Aristotle,  rather  than  the  English  Bacon,  was  the 
real  father  of  induction,  and  thus  giving  the  sciences 
not  only  content  but  form,  he  may  well  be  called  their 
''father."  He  was  *' quite  a  character,"  as  we  should 
say.  Since  nature  had  not  gifted  him  with  fine  phy- 
sique, he  tried  to  make  up  for  defects  by  strict  at- 
tention to  toilet  and  style.  He  lectured  walking,  his 
disciples  walking  with  him  in  the  garden.  From  this 
peculiarity  his  school  and  the  disciples  of  his  teaching 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS       73 

have  taken  the  name  of  Peripatetics.  In  the  morning 
he  lectured  on  subjects  more  or  less  abstruse  to  students 
who  were  ready;  in  the  afternoon  he  selected  subjects 
somewhat  popular,  and  addressed  himself  to  a  larger 
circle  of  disciples. 

The  "  Politics." — Aristotle  gave  the  Greek  world 
many  books,  and  grew  rich  as  a  result,  but  many  of 
them  have  been  lost  to  the  Western  world.  His  treatise 
on  the  laws  of  thought,  i.  e.,  logic,  gave  both  the  pagan 
and  the  Christian  world  a  "deductive  twist"  for  many 
centuries.  The  books  that  interest  us  more  especially 
here  are  his  "Morals"  and  his  "PoUtics." 

Aristotle  was  definitely  modern  in  psychology.  He 
understood  the  function  of  emotions  as  the  springs  of 
action,  and  therefore  had  no  patience  with  the  Socratic 
and  Platonic  doctrine  that  "Knowledge — per  se — is 
Virtue."  And  he  was  still  more  impatient  with  the 
two  underlying  doctrines  of  Plato's  "Republic," 
namely,  that  knowledge  consists  of  self-existent  con- 
cepts— ideas — universals — and  that  these  concepts  are 
possible  for  just  a  few,  who  should  therefore  control 
the  state  as  a  social  whole.  He  saw,  as  we  do,  that 
knowledge  consists  of  two  kinds  of  ideas,  namely, 
percepts  and  concepts,  and  that  of  the  two  only  per- 
cepts stand  for  "reaUty" — that  concepts  have  no  self- 
existence  apart  from  the  individual  consciousness  that 
thinks  them  by  induction.  Over  against  his  revered 
master  he  was  a  "reaUst,"  not  an  "idealist." 

With  these  points  in  mind,  and  moved  by  the  desire 
to  contribute  something  to  the  happiness  of  man, 
Aristotle  made  the  last  brave  effort  to  reconcile  the 
claims  of  Greek  individuality  with  the  claims  of  the 
state  as  a  social  whole.     The  result  of  this  attempt  was 


74  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

his  book  on  "Politics."  He  accepted  Plato's  Spartan 
idea  that  education  by  the  state  should  be  best  for  the 
state,  but  insisted  with  all  the  power  of  his  matchless 
logic  on  democracy  instead  of  aristocracy  in  the  state 
control  of  education.  Accordingly  he  rejected  abso- 
lutely and  finally  all  caste  systems  in  which  the  few 
— on  the  ground  that  they  alone  could  attain  to  wis- 
dom— should  have  a  voice.  Yielding  to  the  limita- 
tions of  his  age,  he  also  disapproved  of  education  for 
the  working  classes.  And  realizing  the  difference  of 
function  in  men  and  women  as  such,  he  rejected  the 
kind  of  state  education  proposed  by  Plato,  but  gave 
the  women  nothing  that  really  enriched  their  function. 
He  recognized  the  educational  function  of  the  home, 
and  paid  tribute  to  its  sacred  relations. 

Aristotle's  educational  psychology  is  strikingly  mod- 
ern. According  to  his  analysis,  physical  culture  and 
mental  culture  should  be  correlated,  but  the  former 
should  lead  the  latter  through  the  early  teens  and  the 
latter  through  the  later  teens.  To  the  traditional 
course  in  reading,  writing,  letters,  and  art,  Aristotle 
would  add  drawing.  With  him  the  beauty-worship 
of  the  Greek  mind  had  rather  gained  than  lost,  nor  did 
he  forget  the  religious  and  moral  function  of  literature, 
including  music  and  the  arts.  He  had  no  patience 
with  physical  culture  that  aimed  at  making  only 
athletes  and  warriors,  since  "the  former  exhausts" 
and  "the  latter  brutalizes."  Not  mere  strength  and 
beauty  but  self-control — self-restraint — were  to  be 
the  aims.  We  cannot  tell  what  curriculum  Aristotle 
advocated  for  higher  education,  for  his  "Politics" — 
probably  by  reason  of  sudden  death — was  never  fin- 
ished,  but  putting   together   "two   and   two"   in   his 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS   75 

practice  and  philosophy,  we  should  say  that  he  would 
emphasize  mathematics,  science,  logic,  politics. 

Estimate. — Aristotle,  like  Plato,  failed  to  impress 
himself  seriously  upon  the  age  to  which  they  give  such 
splendor.  The  momentum  which  rebellious  Greek  in- 
di\dduaKsm  had  acquired  made  it  impossible.  In  later 
centuries  pagan  and  Christian  Europe  became  their 
slaves.  Through  the  survival  of  his  "Organ,"  or 
Laws  of  Thought,  Aristotle,  the  father  of  induction, 
long  enslaved  the  world  to  barren  and  deceptive  syl- 
logisms in  rehgion  and  philosophy.  The  great  things 
for  which  both  Plato  and  Aristotle  stand — their  recog- 
nition that  both  society  and  the  individual  have  just 
claims  on  each  other,  and  that  neither  should  Jeopard- 
ize the  claims  of  the  other — their  sincere  search  after 
truth  in  heaven  and  earth,  for  time  and  eternity — 
these  things  took  fast  hold  of  the  world  only  by  and 
by,  but  the  hold  is  likely  to  be  permanent,  and  only 
Christ  has  surpassed  them  in  the  great  solutions. 

GREEK   AFTER-INSTITUTIONS 

The  educational  movement  inaugurated  by  the 
Greek  Sophists  culminated  in  Aristotle.  "The  voice 
of  the  prophets  had  ceased."  There  were,  indeed,  some 
after-movements,  but  the  movers  were  rather  inter- 
preters and  critics  than  contributors.  For  our  pur- 
poses, all  these  after-movements  can  be  briefly  and 
conveniently  summed  up  as  schools  of  philosophy, 
schools  of  rhetoric,  and  universities. 

Schools  of  Philosophy. — The  urgent  encouragement 
which  Socrates  gave  his  followers  to  think  for  them- 
selves produced  almost  as  many  sects  as  there  were 


76  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

individuals,  (i)  His  disciple  Antisthenes  imposed 
upon  himself  the  task  of  denouncing  the  alarming 
moral  decay  of  the  age.  The  fanatic  fury  into  which 
this  task  urged  him  and  his  followers,  so  that  for  very 
blindness  they  could  see  no  good  in  any  one,  made 
them  snap  and  snarl  at  every  one.  It  was  this  extreme 
pessimism  that  led  the  Greek  world  to  call  these  moral- 
ists the  ^^ Cynics,'"  or  "Dog"  philosophers.  The  most 
conspicuous  of  all  the  Cynics  was  Diogenes,  who  lived 
in  a  tub  and  went  about  with  a  lantern  in  broad  day 
just  to  find  "a  man."  (2)  The  ''Stoics"  were  Cynics 
with  the  rough  edges  toned  down.  Zeno,  their  tall 
founder,  had  hstened  to  the  savage  invectives  of 
Cynic  teachers  for  more  than  ten  years — until  his  soul 
actually  revolted — and  then  he  founded  a  school  of 
his  own  in  Athens.  His  followers  are  called  "Stoics" 
because  he  used  a  porch  or  colonnade  (stoa)  as  a  meet- 
ing-place. The  Stoics  were  not  moral  pessimists. 
They  held  that  virtue,  or  right  moral  action,  was  so 
important  that  even  pain  should  be  defied  in  doing 
right.  The  Roman  Stoics  went  further — they  gloried 
in  pain  themselves  and  inflicted  it  with  fiendish  glee 
on  others.  (3)  Epicurus,  searching  after  happiness, 
found  it,  like  Zeno,  in  virtue,  but  did  not  put  himself 
purposely  in  the  way  of  pain.  A  man  of  means,  he 
yet  lived  a  life  of  simple  goodness  and  piety.  He 
taught  in  his  own  house,  and  had  an  immense  follow- 
ing in  spite  of  scandals  falsely  circulated  by  his  enemies. 
The  followers  of  Epicurus  are  often  confused  with  the 
followers  of  the  wicked  pleasure-seeker  Aristippus,  a 
disciple  of  Socrates,  but  of  whom  he  never  once  ap- 
proved. (4)  The  "Sceptics"  or  Inquirers,  arose  from 
the    encouragement   which   philosophy   gave    to    far- 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS   77 

reaching  research.  Finding  themselves  unable  to  ex- 
plain everything,  they  rushed  to  the  other  foolish  ex- 
treme of  denying  everything.  Pyrrho  himself,  their 
founder,  was  merely  a  humble  inquirer;  his  disciples 
of  a  later  date  were  quite  unworthy  of  the  master. 

Schools  of  Rhetoric. — Just  as  the  speculative  im- 
pulse given  to  Greek  education  by  Socrates  produced 
the  philosophic  schools,  so  the  emphasis  placed  on 
pubHc  life  by  the  Sophists  produced  a  multitude  of 
schools  of  rhetoric.  Isocrates,  a  man  of  great  conse- 
quence in  the  generation  after  Socrates,  organized  the 
work  of  the  Sophists,  and  made  his  school  a  model  for 
others.  The  success  with  which  he  prepared  young 
men  for  the  vigorous  public  life  of  the  fourth  century 
B.  C.  helped  to  make  Athens  the  centre  of  the  intel- 
lectual world  for  several  more  centuries. 

The  Universities. — The  emphasis  which  the  Sophists 
placed  upon  intellectual  education  to  prepare  for  pub- 
lic life  relegated  the  classical  course  of  the  older  Athens 
more  and  m.ore  to  the  rear.  After  the  loss  of  national 
independence  at  the  hands  of  Philip  of  Macedon  at- 
tendance upon  the  gymnasium  became  wholly  volun- 
tary. In  time  compulsory  attendance  at  the  lectures 
of  the  schools  of  philosophy  was  combined  with  vol- 
untary attendance  at  the  schools  of  rhetoric.  When  at 
length  the  wars  between  Rome  and  Macedon  came, 
"  the  Academy,  the  Lyceum,  and  the  school  of  Epicurus, 
which  had  been  without  the  walls,  followed  the  Stoics 
into  the  city."  State  support  and  state  control,  includ- 
ing the  selection  of  Sophists,  or  professors,  became  the 
custom.  The  University  of  Athens,  thus  fully  organ- 
ized, henceforth  offered  long  courses  of  study,  and  the 
student  life  began  to  resemble  the  college  life  of  modern 


78  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

times.  The  University  of  Athens  remained  the  strong- 
hold of  paganism  after  the  advent  of  Christianity,  but 
it  declined  rapidly  when  Constantine  made  Christianity 
the  state  religion,  and  Justinian  suppressed  it  com- 
pletely in  529  A.  D. 

In  the  meantime,  as  the  result  of  Alexander's  con- 
quest, higher  education  began  to  spread  all  over  the 
East.  Greek  universities  arose  at  Rhodes,  Tarsus, 
Alexandria,  and  elsewhere,  but  the  impulse  which  the 
Ptolemies  gave  to  education  by  founding  the  famous 
Alexandrian  library,  280  B.  C,  for  the  collection  of 
manuscripts,  and  the  equally  famous  museum,  for 
science  research,  made  Alexandria  the  rival  and 
finally  the  superior  of  Athens  as  a  university  centre. 
Here  Hellenic  culture  and  the  Orient  merged  into 
speculative  ''isms"  that  have  never  ceased  to  attract 
the  learned  world.  "Here  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
were  translated  into  Greek  (the  Septuagint),  250  B.  C; 
here  Philo  the  Jew  attempted  to  harmonize  the  He- 
brew Scriptures  with  Greek  philosophy."  Here  Euclid 
worked  at  geometry,  Archimedes  in  physics,  and 
Eratosthenes  in  geography  and  astronomy.  Here 
grammar,  literature,  and  rhetoric  grew  into  shape, 
and  here  Greek  philosophy  was  finally  worsted  by 
Christianity. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  "World  History  and  Its  Makers,"  vols.  I  and  IV. 

3.  Lord's  "Old  Pagan  Civilizations." 

4.  Davidson's  "History  of  Education." 

5.  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  I. 

6.  Mahaffy's  "Old  Greek  Education." 

7.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

8.  De  Quincey's  "Plato's  Republic." 

9.  Hegel's  "Philosophy  of  Education." 

10.  Walden's  "The  Universities  of  Ancient  Greece." 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS   79 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  an  account  of  the  tribal  migrations  out  of  which  the 
Hellenes  or  Greeks  presently  emerged  triumphant  and  of  the 
origin  of  Hellenic  tribes. 

2.  What  was  the  peril  to  which  the  Persian  War  exposed 
Greek  development  ?    Explain  the  course  of  events  and  the  issue. 

3.  Sketch  briefly  the  golden  age  of  Athens,  her  terrible  fall,  and 
the  end  of  Greek  independence. 

4.  Show  that  the  same  individualism  present  in  Greek  wars 
and  supremacies  was  the  dominating  thing  in  Greek  reUgion. 

5.  Give  an  account  of  the  Greek  gods  and  the  weak  moral 
guarantees  of  Greek  ideas  about  the  "future  state." 

6.  Discuss  the  Greek  oracles,  together  with  the  temples  and 
priests. 

7.  Describe  the  sacred  games  of  the  Greeks,  and  show  how 
they  served  as  a  means  in  the  development  of  the  Greeks. 

8.  Account  for  the  character  of  education  in  the  Homeric  age. 

9.  What  was  the  origin  of  Sparta?  For  what  social  system 
does  this  origin  account?  How  did  Lycurgus  organize  Sparta 
for  her  destiny? 

10.  Explain  the  detailed  fitness  of  means  and  ends  in  the 
Lycurgian  scheme  of  Spartan  education.  Judge  the  system  in 
detail. 

11.  Greek  individuaUsm  is  seen  to  the  best  advantage  in 
Ionian  Athens.  The  story  of  transition  from  monarchy  to  de- 
mocracy is  conspicuously  the  story  of  individuaUsm.  Tell  this 
story. 

12.  What  were  the  distinctive  ideals  of  Athenian  education? 

13.  Explain  the  system  of  means  and  ends  in  Athenian  edu- 
cation, going  into  full  details.  Judge  the  system  by  its  results 
to  history  and  in  the  light  of  psychology,  sociology,  etc. 

14.  Account  for  the  distinction  between  the  "new"  and  the 
"old"  in  Greek  education. 

15.  Who  were  the  Greek  Sophists?  What  produced  them? 
Describe  their  work  of  "adjustment"  in  detail  and  explain  why 
the  conservatives  opposed  the  Sophists. 

16.  Account  for  the  rise  of  Greek  philosophy. 

17.  How  may  we  account  for  the  high  purpose  of  Pythagoras 
and  for  the  impress  which  he  left  on  education? 


80  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

1 8.  Describe  his  work  at  Crotona,  going  into  the  details  of 
curriculum  and  method.  Judge  his  pedagogy  by  modern  stand- 
ards. 

19.  What  can  you  find  in  the  making  of  Socrates  to  help  us 
account  for  his  ideas  and  for  the  force  which  he  gave  his  ideas  ? 

20.  Explain  the  philosophic  position  of  Socrates  over  against 
that  of  Protagoras. 

21.  Distinguish  the  methods  by  which  Socrates  hoped  to 
make  men  think  for  themselves,  and  choose  between  them. 

22.  Whom  do  we  usually  associate  most  intimately  with 
Socrates  in  the  list  of  his  disciples?  What  did  Xenophon  con- 
tribute to  education? 

23.  Use  "the  making  of  Plato"  to  account  as  fully  as  possible 
for  the  loftiness  of  his  ideals  and  for  the  immortal  force  which 
he  gave  these  ideals. 

24.  Describe  the  services  which  Plato  rendered  the  cause  of 
education  through  his  "Academy"  and  his  "Republic." 

25.  Examine  the  fitness  of  means  to  ends  as  set  forth  in  Plato's 
"Republic." 

26.  Why  can  the  twentieth  century  not  accept  Plato's  "Re- 
public" outright? 

27.  To  what  extent  do  the  influences  which  helped  to  make 
Aristotle  account  for  the  views  which  he  held  and  for  the  place 
which  he  holds  to-day? 

28.  Explain  the  services  which  Aristotle  rendered  the  cause 
of  education  through  his  "Lyceum"  and  his  books.  Compare 
his  "Politics"  with  Plato's  "Republic."  Estimate  the  worth  of 
Aristotle  in  the  light  of  modern  standards. 

29.  Account  for  the  philosophical  schools,  the  later  schools 
of  rhetoric,  and  the  Greek  universities.  Examine  them,  going 
into  the  details. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

EDUCATION   OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS 
ROME 

The  "Latins"  of  Alba  Longa,  who  founded  Rome 
753  B.  C,  if  tradition  holds,  were  Aryans,  like  the 
Greeks,  and  a  part  of  the  same  great  migration.  But 
the  Etruscans,  whose  presence  north  of  the  Tiber  in- 
duced the  Latins  to  found  Rome,  were,  if  we  mistake 
not,  identical  with  the  Pelasgians  noticed  in  Chapter 
VII,  and  therefore  a  Turano-Semitic  people.  The 
conquest  of  the  Etruscan  Veii  (396  B.  C.)  by  the 
Latins  was  the  beginning  of  Aryan  supremacy;  but 
the  usual  amalgamation  of  stocks  produced  the  com- 
positeness  of  Roman  ideals  and  Roman  history  as 
known  to  later  centuries.  "The  Turanians  contrib- 
uted the  bulk  of  the  religious  notions  and  rites;  the 
Semites  the  prosaic  practicality  and  thirst  for  power; 
the  Aryans,  with  their  language,  their  political  forms."  * 

Ambition. — The  origin  of  Rome,  and  the  perils  to 
which  hostile  neighbors  afterward  exposed  her  very 
existence,  soon  produced  the  co-operative  ambition 
which  finally  gave  her  a  world-empire.  The  first  task 
to  which  this  co-operative  ambition  of  composite 
Rome  applied  herself  was  the  conquest  of  all  Italy. 
This  task  had  been  all  but  accomplished  when  Pyrrhus, 
cousin  of  Alexander  the  Great,   had  been    forced  to 

*  Davidson's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  107. 
81 


82  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

abandon  Tarentum,  the  heart  of  Magna  Graecia  (272 
B.  C.)-  But  Rome,  now  master  of  Italy,  coveted  the 
supremacy  to  which  Phoenician  Carthage  had  attained 
on  sea,  and  thus  came  the  three  Punic  wars,  stretch- 
ing over  more  than  a  century,  Rome  finally  conquering 
Carthage  (146  B.  C.)-  In  the  meantime  ambitious 
Rome  had  conquered  almost  all  the  lands  that  touch 
the  sea,  including  not  only  northern  Africa  but  parts 
of  Spain,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece. 

During  all  these  centuries,  reaching  from  509  B.  C. 
to  146  B.  C,  Roman  ambition  had  not  ceased  to  be 
co-operative,  and  Rome  had  continued  to  be  a  republic, 
but  out  of  the  wars  and  turmoils  that  followed  the 
conquests  for  a  century  emerged  the  fateful  Trium- 
virates. Another  step — and  co-operative  ambition 
had  succumbed  to  personal  ambition — the  republic 
was  dead — empire  was  born.  The  story  of  the  twelve 
Caesars  and  their  successors,  together  with  the  gradual 
decay  and  final  fall  of  Rome  (476  A.  D.),  is  too  well 
known  to  require  repetition. 

Individuality. — The  co-operative  ambition  of  Rome 
grew  out  of  the  common  peril  to  which  both  patrician 
and  plebeian  were  exposed,  and  gave  rise  first  to  the 
Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  (451  B.  C.)  and  later  to 
the  Laws  of  Licinius  (367  B.  C).  While,  therefore, 
in  Rome  as  in  Sparta,  war  became  the  business  of  the 
state,  the  Roman  state  as  a  social  whole  saved  herself 
— and  individuality — ^from  caste  limitations,  and  hon- 
ored all  human  relations  that  served  both  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  state.  This  reconciliation  between 
the  Roman  social  whole  and  individuality  explains  the 
well-known  reverence  for  home  ties  and  useful  occu- 
pations.    Thus  the  "sense"  of  justice  for  which  Greek 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS       83 

individuality  kept  striving  was  concretely  realized  in 
Roman  life.  While,  as  a  consequence,  the  Roman  peo- 
ple as  a  whole  were  sedate,  serious,  and  self-controlled, 
they  were  also  proud  and  satisfied.  "To  be  a  Roman 
was  to  be  greater  than  a  king." 

Religion.— "  The  prosaic  practicality  and  thirst  for 
power" — the  Semitic  trait  so  conspicuous  in  Roman 
ambition  and  Roman  vocations — appears  as  a  utili- 
tarian, or  practical,  tendency  in  their  religion.  For, 
although  the  Romans,  as  we  should  expect,  held  funda- 
mentally to  the  same  nature-worship  as  their  Greek 
cousins,  they  did  not  clothe  their  gods  in  beautiful 
human  shapes,  and  worship  them  in  joyous  play,  but 
rather  felt  their  presence  as  moral  forces  with  whom 
serious  bargains  must  be  made,  and  to  whom  placating 
sacrifices  must  be  offered.  This  feeling  is  seen  especially 
in  the  reverence  paid  to  the  household  "Lares  and 
Penates,"  and  the  guardian  "Vestal  Virgins."  To  the 
former,  which  typified  family  unity,  frequent  sacrifices 
were  made  by  the  father  at  shrines  within  the  home 
itself;  and  to  the  latter,  which  typified  the  larger 
family,  or  state,  the  Vestal  Virgins  as  state  guardians 
sacrificed  at  public  shrines  or  temples.*  Originally  the 
king  was  the  chief  priest,  and  the  pontijex  maximus  of 
the  republic  was  a  civil  functionary. 

The  more  serious  and  dignified  aspect  of  Roman 
religion  held  fast  even  when  conquering  Rome  in  her 
new  intellectualism  and  aesthetic  hunger  took  the 
Greek  gods  bodily  into  her  heart.  It  was  only  when 
Rome  in  her  later  general  decay  made  place  in  her 
"Pantheon"  for  the  gods  of  all  nations  that  religion 
lost  its  power  as  a  moral  sanction. 

*  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  I,  p.  240. 


y 


84  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Although  in  the  course  of  events,  therefore,  Rome 
had  adopted  Greek  religion,  and  with  it  its  expressive 
architecture,  literature,  and  philosophy,  she  failed  to 
contribute  much  to  these  adoptions—except  in  law — 
and  oratory — because  she  enslaved  them  all  to  ends 
of  utility. 

EDUCATION   OF   THE   ROMANS 

The  course  of  political  events,  as  briefly  outlined 
above,  together  with  the  social  and  religious  phases 
that  accompanied  this  course  of  events,  prepares  us 
for  the  details  of  Roman  education.  These  details 
can  be  gathered  up  most  conveniently  under  two  heads, 
namely,  the  "old"  and  the  "new"  education. 

THE   OLD   EDUCATION 

The  first,  or  old,  period  in  Roman  education  extends 
from  her  earliest  history  to  the  time  when  Rome 
became  completely  infiltrated  with  Greek  ideals. 
Roughly  speaking,  this  did  not  occur  before  146  B.  C, 
when  Rome  finally  conquered  Greece,  and  was  aston- 
ished into  captivation  by  the  wealth  of  art  which  con- 
quering armies  poured  into  her  lap;  but  the  dividing- 
line  in  point  of  time  is  only  a  text-book  convenience, 
for  after  all  the  amalgamation  of  old  and  new  ideals 
had  begun  as  early  as  the  conquest  of  Magna  Greecia, 
and  was  not  complete  before  the  age  of  Augustus. 

Old  Ideals. — The  primary  purpose  of  early  Roman 
education  evidently  was  military  and  industrial  effi' 
ciency,  conserved  by  reverence  for  the  gods  and  rever- 
ence for  necessary  laws.  In  other  words,  what  Rome 
needed  and  wanted  was  good  soldiers,  good  citizens, 
good   industrials.     These   efficiencies   placed   the   em- 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS       85 

phasis  upon  such  qualities  as  strength,  patriotic  cour- 
age, reverence  for  Roman  laws  and  institutions,  ca- 
pacity for  doing  things  that  must  be  done,  and  gravity 
of  mind  and  mien.  Underlying  and  supporting  all 
requirements  was  respectful  piety.  The  Laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables  was  the  first  constitutional  embodiment 
of  Roman  ideals. 

The  Home. — The  fundamental  educational  agency 
upon  which  Rome  relied  was  the  home.  The  parents 
held  themselves  responsible  to  the  state  for  the  bring- 
ing up  of  boys  and  girls  in  strict  accord  with  ideals. 
In  theory  the  father's  authority  was  absolute,  extend- 
ing even  to  possible  divorce,  infanticide,  slavery,  and 
other  despotic  treatment,  but  in  practice  the  Roman 
wife  and  mother  became  more  than  her  husband's 
rival  in  influence.  The  Roman  home  tie,  like  that  of 
the  Jews,  was  a  religious  institution,  and  the  Roman 
father  was  not  an  exile,  as  he  was  among  the  Spar- 
tans. And  yet,  because  he  was  needed  much  on  the 
fields  and  in  the  camp,  or,  if  a  patrician,  in  the  forum, 
the  mother  who,  as  in  the  case  of  Cornelia,  loved  her 
children,  became  an  important  factor  in  their  early 
education.  She  shared  with  her  husband  the  task  of 
teaching  reUgion  and  morals,  and  also  the  simple  les- 
sons in  reading,  writing,  and  the  number  calculations 
of  the  daily  life.  The  old  Roman  family,  in  short, 
worshipped  the  gods  of  the  home  and  crops  and  war, 
teaching  the  children  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  rites 
and  ceremonies  by  example  and  by  precept.  To  these 
reHgious  instructions,  training  in  obedience,  frugality, 
industry,  and  military  courage  was  added  for  the  boys, 
while  the  girls  became  their  mother's  second  self  in 
domestic  life.* 

*  Monroe's  "  Cyclopedia  of  Education." 


86  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Beyond  the  Home. — Besides  the  home,  the  early 
Romans  used  "life  itself"  as  means  to  ends  in  educa- 
tion. The  boys  learned  such  vocations  as  farming 
and  business  from  fathers  and  elders. 

(i)  The  patrician's  son  could  gather  much  from  close 
association  with  the  father  in  the  "forum,"  where  the 
father  met  and  dealt  with  his  "clients,"  or  dependents. 
After  Roman  tradition  and  Roman  aspirations  had 
taken  written  form  in  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables 
(451  B.  C.)  they  were  hung  in  the  forum  and  had  to 
be  committed  by  the  boys.  It  appears  highly  proba- 
ble, however,  that  there  were  schools  near  the  forum 
very  early  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  republic,  and 
that  in  these  schools  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables, 
as  well  as  reading  and  writing,  were  well-recognized 
parts  of  the  curriculum. 

(2)  The  early  Romans,  always  looking  forward  to 
the  possibilities  of  war  with  hostile  neighbors,  paid 
much  attention  to  the  body.  Outdoor  life  for  boys, 
agriculture  and  allied  vocations,  served  the  purposes 
in  part,  but  above  and  beyond  all  incidental  means 
was  training  in  the  use  of  arms,  which  must  always 
have  been  obligatory  on  the  Roman  youth. 

THE   NEW  EDUCATION 

Rome  first  came  in  contact  with  Greek  culture  in 
the  early  days  of  the  republic,  if  not  before  the  re- 
public, and  a  steady  infiltration  of  the  new  ideas 
was  inevitable.  It  was  not,  however,  till  about  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  (230  B.  C.)  that  regular 
schools  were  opened.  The  oldest  schoolmaster  known 
to  us  was  Spurius  Carvilius.     He  and  His  fellows,  how- 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS       87 

ever,  were  at  a  great  disadvantage  for  want  of  school- 
books,  there  being  no  such  thing  as  an  available  Roman 
literature.  In  a  short  time  this  deficiency  was  sup- 
plied by  the  rise  of  a  Hterature  imitated  from  the 
Greek,  the  works  of  Naevius,  Livius  Andronicus,  En- 
nius,  Pacuvius,  and  Plautus.  The  Latin  version  of 
the  "Odyssey"  (250  B.  C.)  by  the  second  of  these  now 
became  for  the  Romans  what  the  Homeric  poems 
generally  had  long  been  for  the  Greeks.  At  the  same 
time  the  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language  became 
more  and  more  an  accomplishment  of  the  upper 
classes,  being  imparted  by  slave  tutors.  When  at 
last,  in  146  B.  C,  Greece  became  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, ''captive  Greece  took  captive  her  rude  con- 
queror." * 

Cato. — There  was  much  opposition  on  the  part  of 
conservatives.  Men  like  the  elder  Cato  would  not 
make  any  compromise  with  Greek  innovations.  We 
are  told  that  because  he  feared  the  corrupting  influx  of 
Greek  ideas,  he  supervised  the  education  of  his  boy 
with  special  care.  Not  content  that  the  learned  slave 
tutor  whom  he  had  employed  for  his  son  should  beat 
a  free-born  boy,  or  that  a  Roman  boy  should  owe  his 
education  to  a  Greek,  he  taught  the  boy  himself. 
"This  sturdy  Roman,"  as  Plutarch  calls  him,  taught 
his  son  to  read,  "wrote  histories,  in  large  characters, 
with  his  own  hand,  so  that  his  son,  without  stirring 
out  of  the  house,  might  learn  to  know  about  his  coun- 
trymen and  forefathers,"  "taught  him  his  grammar, 
law,  and  g}Tnnastics."  "Nor  did  he  only  show  him 
how  to  throw  a  dart,  to  fight  in  armor,  and  to  ride, 
but  to  box  a^so,  and  to  endure  both  heat  and  cold, 

*  Davidson's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  109. 


88  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  to  swim  over  the  most  rapid  and  roughest 
rivers.    * 

Horace. — But  sturdy  Cato  and  his  fellows  failed  to 
stem  the  tide,  as  we  see  in  the  education  of  the  poet 
Horace.  In  his  sixth  satire  Horace  tells  us  that  his 
father,  not  satisfied  with  anything  but  the  best,  re- 
fused to  send  the  boy  to  school  to  Flavius,  the  school- 
master of  Venusia,  the  poet's  birthplace,  but  carried 
him  to  Rome,  where  the  Grasco-Roman  education  had 
already  acquired  much  perfection,  and  ''where  the 
sons  of  the  centurions,  the  great  men  there,  used  to  go, 
with  their  bags  and  slates  on  the  left  arm,  taking  the 
teacher's  fee  on  the  ides  of  eight  months  in  the  year." 
This  description  of  Httle  Horace  going  to  school  gives 
us  a  glimpse  not  only  into  a  "new"  school  world,  but 
a  neat  little  summing  up  of  school  details  in  Augustan 
Rome. 

New  Ideals. — As  soon  as  Rome  had  become  mistress 
of  Italy,  and  still  more  in  the  later  days  of  the  republic 
when,  through  the  Punic  wars  and  after-wars,  she  had 
gained  world-power,  but  especially  when  through  the 
great  triumvirates  the  republic  succumbed  to  empire, 
the  old  ideal  of  miHtary  and  industrial  efl5ciency  gave 
way  to  the  new  ideal  of  Greek  culture  for  the  enriched 
patricians.  What  Rome  now  needed  most  was  not 
great  armies  and  conquering  leaders  but  great  states- 
men who  should  shape  the  policy  of  empire.  Law  and 
oratory,  together  with  philosophy,  thus  became  the 
means  to  the  ends  in  view.  The  "old"  industries,  in- 
cluding agriculture,  became  the  function  of  slaves  and 
subject  classes,  and  thus  in  time  completely  subor- 
dinate in  the  new  ideal.  The  new  system  of  means  to 
*  Painter's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  80. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS       89 

ends  may  be  conveniently  treated  under  three  or  four 
conspicuous  heads,  namely,  elementary  schools,  gram- 
mar-schools, schools  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy,  or,  as 
we  should  say,  elementary  schools,  high  schools,  and 
universities. 

Elementary  Schools. — Apart  from  Livy's  account* 
of  the  seizure  of  Virginia  on  her  way  to  school,  and  the 
reference  of  Dionysius  to  the  same  event,  we  have  no 
proof  that  elementary  schools  existed  in  Rome  before 
the  period  of  Hellenization,  The  Romans  called  the 
elementary  school  Indus  (play),  probably  because  it 
was  merely  added  to  the  home  as  a  sort  of  play. 

There  were  no  school  buildings  such  as  we  have  in 
mind  to-day.  The  school  was  held  in  hired  rooms, 
porches,  and  other  open  spaces.  It  was  only  in  the 
best  centuries  of  the  republic  that  the  school  was  com- 
fortably housed  and  the  place  properly  equipped  and 
beautified. 

The  Roman  children  of  the  new  era  began  to  go  to 
school  at  the  age  of  six  or  seven.  In  imitation  of  the 
Greeks,  a  slave  called  pedagogue  or  custos  accompanied 
the  boy  all  day,  and  a  7iurse  the  girl.  This  slave  was 
often  a  Greek  from  whom  the  children  might  learn  to 
speak,  and  who  should  act  as  a  sort  of  moral  chaperon, 
but  the  function  of  the  Roman  pedagogue  was  prob- 
ably always  of  less  importance  than  in  Greece. 

Reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  if  these  had  not 
been  learned  at  home,  from  tutors,  were  the  first  sub- 
jects studied.  The  literary  curriculum  embraced 
stories  of  heroes,  ballads,  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  and  later  suitable  selections  from  the  transla- 
tion of  the  "Odyssey"  by  Andronicus. 
*  Book  III,  p.  44. 


90  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

The  teacher  was  called  the  [iterator  (teacher  of  let- 
ters). He  was  usually  a  Greek  or  Syro- Greek  f reed- 
man,  without  much  special  training,  and  accordingly 
without  social  standing.  Though  required  by  the 
state,  he  was  not  employed  nor  supervised  by  it. 

The  alphabetic  method,  as  Quintilian  tells  us,  was 
used  in  teaching  reading.  Writing  was  taught  on 
wax  tablets,  with  the  stylus,  the  teacher  guiding  the 
pupil's  hand  at  first.  When  the  letters  had  been  mas- 
tered written  work  was  combined  with  the  literary 
works  of  the  curriculum.  An  abacus  was  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  fingers  in  teaching  counting.  The 
Roman  notation  made  written  calculations  very  diffi- 
cult. Sums  were  worked  on  wax  tablets.  Chanting 
was  combined  with  religious  and  moral  instructions. 
The  memoriter  methods  of  the  school  made  corporal 
punishment  a  special  feature.  In  the  fresco  of  Her- 
culaneum  is  pictured  a  flogging  scene.  The  victim  is 
mounted  on  a  comrade's  back,  his  feet  held  by  another, 
while  the  master  beats  him  on  the  bare  back. 

The  school  day  began  early  in  the  morning  and  lasted 
all  day,  with  only  a  brief  intermission  for  luncheon. 
But  there  were  frequent  holidays  and  a  long  summer 
vacation. 

Grammar-Schools. — The  new  era  produced  gram- 
mar, or  secondary,  schools  before  the  close  of  the  third 
century  B.  C.  They  were  high  schools,  somewhat  like 
the  grammar-schools  of  American  colom'al  times,  pre- 
paring ambitious  boys  for  the  schools  of  rhetoric.  At 
first  the  Roman  grammar-school  was  a  Greek  school,  in 
charge  of  a  Greek  teacher,  called  the  grammaticus,  or 
liter atus,  who  planned  the  curriculum.  Latin  grammar- 
schools  began  to  arise  about  a  century  B.  C. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS       91 

The  curriculum,  which  was  pretty  uniform,  con- 
sisted primarily  of  grammar  and  literature.  The 
authors  most  used  at  first  were  Homer  and  Hesiod, 
but  later  also  Vergil  and  Horace.  The  explanation  of 
these  authors  by  the  teacher  was  made  through  such 
useful  adjuncts  as  mythology,  history,  geography, 
astronomy,  geometry,  and  music. 

Although  the  grammaticus  was  not  a  state  employee, 
he  was  usually  well  qualified  for  his  work,  and  there- 
fore so  well  paid  that  when  he  had  a  large  school  he 
could  house  it  not  only  comfortably  but  with  suitable 
equipment  and  the  beautifying  arts. 

The  boys  who  could  afford  to  attend  a  grammar- 
school  usually  entered  at  the  age  of  twelve,  and  re- 
mained about  three  years.  Nevertheless,  they  were 
not  always  happy  in  their  school  Hfe,  for  while  the 
methods  of  work  were  better,  the  necessary  mechani- 
cal grind,  which  often  ran  into  foolish  trifling,  as 
Seneca  tells  us,  led  to  frequent  and  cruel  punishments. 

Schools  of  Rhetoric. — During  the  second  century 
B.  C.  schools  of  rhetoric,  that  is,  schools  of  public 
speaking,  or  oratory,  began  to  be  imported  from  Greece 
to  Rome,  and  this  in  spite  of  decrees  and  edicts  to  the 
contrary.  Neither  Greek  nor  Latin  schools  of  rhetoric, 
therefore,  were  at  all  common  before  the  Augustan 
age,  and  they  were  patronized  chiefly  by  those  ambi- 
tious young  men  who  hoped  to  become  orators  and 
statesmen. 

The  curriculum  offered  commands  twentieth-cen- 
tury attention,  both  for  its  fitness  of  means  to  ends 
and  for  the  underlying  conception  of  the  dignity  of 
Roman  statesmanship.  "Besides  a  knowledge  of  the 
technic  of  oratory,  they  furnished  a  linguistic,  literary, 


92  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  scientific  education  of  broad  scope,  and  even  a 
training  in  philosophy,  especially  Stoicism.  Thus 
they  covered  all  the  subjects  later  included  under  the 
seven  liberal  arts — grammar,  rhetoric,  dialectic,  music, 
arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy,  although,  as 
would  be  expected,  these  studies  were  given  some- 
thing of  a  practical  turn."  *  The  ambitious  young 
men  who  took  this  course  began  the  work  at  about 
the  age  of  sixteen,  when  they  assumed  the  garb  of 
manhood,  or  toga  virilis,  and  finished  it  in  two  or  three 
years,  according  to  ability. 

The  Universities.  —  In  the  Augustan  age  private 
teachers  of  philosophy  became  common,  and  ambitious 
graduates  from  the  schools  of  rhetoric  might,  like 
Cicero,  go  to  the  university  of  Athens,  Alexandria,  or 
Rhodes.  Presently,  in  the  first  century  A.  D.,  when 
universities,  the  result  of  Greek  impulse,  sprang  up 
everywhere,  Rome  herself  became  a  centre.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Rome  sprang  up  "from  a  library  founded 
by  Vespasian  in  the  Temple  of  Peace  about  75  A.  D., 
and  a  half-century  later,  through  the  addition  of  pro- 
fessors and  a  splendid  building,  Hadrian  organized  it 
into  the  Athenaum.  Here  at  first  courses  in  liberal 
arts,  especially  in  grammar  and  rhetoric,  were  given; 
and  somewhat  later,  professional  work  in  law,  medi- 
cine, architecture,  and  mechanics  was  added."  f 

Estimate. — (i)  As  a  system  of  means  to  ends  the 
"old"  education  of  Rome  really  produced  the  miUtary 
and  industrial  efficiency  comporting  with  her  ambi- 
tion for  world-empire  without  enslaving  individuality, 
and  thus  combined  what  was  best  in  Sparta  and 
Athens,  but  gave  it   a  higher  trend  by  making  the 

*  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  I,  p.  261.  f  Graves. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS       93 

useful    rather    than   the   merely   beautiful   the   thing 
most  worth  while. 

(2)  Although  this  education  continued  to  be  a  pri- 
vate rather  than  a  public  trust,  and  thus  suffered  the 
usual  defects  of  non-professional  supervision,  it  em- 
phasized the  educational  function  of  the  home  and 
"life  itself,"  points  well  in  line  with  the  highest  ideals 
of  the  twentieth  century.* 

(3)  The  "new"  education,  more  cultural  than  the 
old,  subsidized  this  culture  to  the  useful,  and  thus  nar- 
rowed opportunity  to  the  few  most  closely  identified 
with  state  fortunes — an  aristocracy  rather  than  a 
democracy. 

(4)  While  the  new  education,  for  the  sake  of  aris- 
tocracy, ambitiously  appropriated  the  whole  range  of 
Hellenic  curriculum,  pedagogy,  as  we  gather  from  the 
criticism  of  representatives  like  Cicero,  Seneca,  Quin- 
tilian,  and  Plutarch,  lagged  far  behind  the  best  psy- 
chology. 

(5)  Even  if  the  Roman  woman  of  the  better  class 
was  generally  required  to  have  an  elementary  educa- 
tion, and  was  not  excluded  from  the  higher  opportuni- 
ties of  the  new  education,  she  was  subject  to  "con- 
vention," and  usually  obtained  such  education  from 
hired  tutors  in  her  private  home,  or  from  her  more 
fortunate  husband. 

(6)  It  is  true  that  imperial  Rome,  especially  in  her 
decay,  subsidized  education,  through  salaried  teachers 
and  through  all  sorts  of  privileges,  thus  robbing  at 
least  higher  education  of  serious  content  and  purpose, 
very  much  as  Prussian  Hohenzollernism,  by  accepting 
sixteenth-century  Protestantism,  deprived  the  latter  of 

*  The  Rockefeller  Foundation  ideals. 


94  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

its  initial  democratizing  element;  but  the  one  out- 
standing fact,  and  the  fact  that  describes  the  special 
mission  of  Rome  in  education,  is  the  world-wide  trans- 
mission of  the  new  education  which  her  genius  for  or- 
ganization made  possible,  and  her  enrichment  of  the 
same  by  laws  which  are  still  foundations.  Add  to 
this,  that  by  nationalizing  Christianity,  Constantine 
the  Great  yoked  this  transmission  with  its  final  master 
and  redeemer,  and  then  we  have  a  record  of  achieve- 
ment of  which  Rome  may  well  be  proud. 

ROMAN  REPRESENTATIVES 

Rome  never  produced  Platos  and  Aristotles  who 
could  think  new  philosophies,  but  in  her  age  of  glory 
and  decay  she  did  produce  great  orators  and  states- 
men, who  were  at  the  same  time  interpreters  and  re- 
formers of  the  system  which  produced  them,  and  true 
disciples  of  philosophy.  Such,  for  example,  were 
Cicero,  Seneca,  Quintilian,  and  others. 

CICERO 

"Cicero  was  born  io6  B.  C,  in  Arpinum,  the  birth- 
place also  of  Marius.  His  father  was  a  knight  of  good 
social  position  and  the  son  was  well  educated  in  prepa- 
ration for  the  bar  and  for  public  life."  He  assumed 
the  toga  virilis  at  sixteen,  and  studied  law,  oratory,  and 
philosophy.  Afterward  he  travelled  in  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor  to  improve  his  education.  He  studied 
oratory  at  Rhodes.  Here  his  teacher,  Apollonius,  a 
celebrated  rhetorician,  once  requested  him  to  deliver 
a  Greek  declamation.     The  audience  was  delighted, 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS       95 

and,  after  a  sorrowful  silence,  Apollonius  said:  "You 
have  my  praise  and  admiration,  Cicero,  and  Greece 
my  pity  and  commiseration,  since  those  arts  and  that 
eloquence,  which  are  the  only  glories  that  remain  to 
her,  will  now  be  transferred  to  Rome." 

Apollonius  prophesied  correctly,  for  it  was  through 
Cicero  and  his  distinguished  services  that  Rome  really 
did  become  a  very  centre  of  oratory.  In  his  treatise 
on  oratory  he  lays  great  stress  on  morals  as  the  dis- 
tinguishing quality  of  a  true  orator.  True  to  Roman 
utilitarianism,  he  believed  the  republic  needed  the  ser- 
\'ice  of  such  good  men,  and  therefore,  as  means  to 
ends,  he  advocated  a  comprehensive  course  in  history, 
literature,  and  philosophy,  in  addition  to  law,  in  the 
training  of  an  orator.  The  wisdom  of  this  advice  has 
never  been  controverted.  Had  the  fate  of  Rome  been 
committed  to  orators,  or  statesmen,  of  such  a  type, 
empire  might  never  have  followed  on  the  heel  of  the 
republic.  It  was  this  preference  for  character  as  the 
highest  thing  in  education  that  led  him  to  oppose  the 
brutal  corporal  punishments  which  disgraced  Roman 
education,  and  he  saw,  as  we  now  see,  that  the  cur- 
riculum which  he  proposed  would  reduce  its  need  to 
a  minimum. 

SENECA 

Seneca  was  born  at  Cordova,  Spain,  in  4  B.  C. 
His  father  was  a  distinguished  Spanish  rhetorician, 
who  gave  his  son  a  liberal  Roman  education.  Seneca 
became  a  successful  orator  and  attained  to  high  politi- 
cal honors  under  the  Emperor  Claudius.  On  account 
of  an  alleged  connection  with  a  royal  plot,  he  was  exiled 
to  the  island  of  Corsica,  where  he  spent  eight  long 


96  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

years,  but  found  consolation  in  philosophy.  Later, 
recalled  to  Rome,  he  was  honored  with  the  office  of 
pretor  and  that  of  consul,  and  acquired  a  vast  fortune. 
The  empress  selected  him  as  her  confidential  adviser 
and  intrusted  him  with  the  education  of  her  son,  the 
future  Nero. 

He  was  probably  the  most  eminent  Latin  writer  of 
his  age.  He  was  a  Stoic  philosopher,  and  his  books 
have  been  called  Stoic  sermons.  He  touches  on  edu- 
cation with  a  master's  hand.  Like  Cicero  before  him, 
he  believed  that  character  is  not  only  better  than 
learning  but  that  it  is  the  greatest  thing  in  education. 
He  had  a  profound  conception  of  the  true  God,  and 
said  that  in  building  character  "the  will  of  man  should 
be  harmonized  with  the  will  of  God."  This  formula, 
it  is  true,  can  be  realized  completely  only  when  we 
know  God's  will  in  Christ,  but  it  is  no  wonder  that 
Seneca  should  be  called  "the  Heathen  seeker  after 
God."  His  conception  of  the  relation  of  religion  to 
character,  and  the  world's  need  of  such  character, 
convinced  him,  as  it  had  Cicero,  that  curriculum  and 
the  teacher's  personality  rather  than  force  should  be 
the  means  to  the  end,  and  in  this  conclusion  we  mod- 
erns also  believe. 

QUINTILIAN 

Quintilian  was  born  about  35  A.  D.,  or  a  little  later, 
at  Calagurris,  Spain.  The  atmosphere  of  culture 
which  Rome  alone  afforded  drew  him  there  early  in 
life.  Here,  hoping  to  take  up  the  profession  of  law, 
he  pursued  his  studies  under  the  special  direction  of 
his  father,  who  himself  was  a  celebrated  rhetorician, 
and  to  whom  he  owed  much  of  his  future  fame.     He 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS       97 

abandoned  a  successful  practice  in  law  to  become  a 
teacher  of  oratory.  By  this  time  oratory  had  acquired 
high  reputation,  and  Vespasian,  recognizing  the  eminent 
worth  of  Quintilian,  granted  him  an  allowance  from 
the  public  treasury.  He  won  the  distinguishing  title 
of  "Professor  of  Eloquence,"  and  Domitian,  in  appre- 
ciation of  his  splendid  work,  endowed  him  with  con- 
sular rank.  That  this  Roman  professor  of  oratory 
was  able  to  snatch  supremacy  from  his  Greek  contem- 
poraries and  hold  his  place  as  a  teacher,  highly  hon- 
ored and  highly  endowed,  for  twenty  years — difficult 
years  for  the  empire — surely  entitles  him  to  a  respect- 
ful hearing  on  the  subject  of  Roman  education. 

He  withdrew  from  public  life  at  the  early  age  of 
fifty-three,  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  fife  to  his  "In- 
stitutes of  Oratory,"  a  work  in  twelve  volumes,  in 
which,  with  the  idea  of  outlining  the  education  of  an 
orator,  he  presented  all  after-ages  with  the  most  valu- 
able treatise  on  education  in  general.  This  great  work 
has  long  been  considered  the  most  valuable  contribu- 
tion of  antiquity. 

The  educational  views  of  Quintilian  rest  on  the  fun- 
damental conception  that  the  orator  is  "a  good  man 
skilled  in  speaking."  He  adds:  "I  say  not  only  that 
he  who  would  answer  my  idea  of  an  orator  must  be 
a  good  man,  but  that  no  man  unless  he  be  good,  can 
ever  be  an  orator."  With  this  end  in  view,  and  be- 
lieving with  Plato  that  wisdom  is  the  way  to  goodness, 
Quintilian  undertook  to  interpret  the  education  of  an 
orator  from  infancy  to  mature  philosophy. 

(i)  A  born  psychologist,  he  saw,  as  the  German 
Froebel  saw  much  later,  that  education  should  begin 
in  play — and  that  as  early  as  possible. 


98  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

(2)  Like  Froebel,  he  recognized  the  child's  imitating 
powers,  and  therefore  advocated  nurses,  pedagogues, 
and  teachers  worthy  of  such  imitation.  As  the  child's 
associate,  so  the  child  in  speech,  and  action. 

(3)  Like  Froebel,  he  saw  the  children  unfold  more 
perfectly  under  the  stimulating  impulse  of  like  asso- 
ciates, and  therefore,  although  he  was  conscious  of  the 
possibilities  of  evil  in  the  public  schools,  he  advocated 
public  schools  as  superior  to  the  Roman  tutors,  still 
so  common  in  his  time, 

(4)  Believing  with  Cicero  and  Seneca  and  "a  host 
of  saints"  that  character-building  should  be  the  main 
purpose  of  education,  he,  like  these,  argued  eloquently 
that  not  force  (to  which  Roman  custom  still  submitted) 
but  the  teacher's  personality  and  the  school  curriculum 
are  the  means  par  excellence. 

(5)  And  Quintilian,  with  all  great  educators  from 
Socrates  to  Madame  Montessori,  believed  in  the  sa- 
credness  of  individuality,  and  therefore  advocated 
earnestly,  just  as  Froebel  does,  that  "child-study"  is 
the  first  and  last  and  greatest  task. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  Lord's  "Old  Pagan  Civilizations." 

3.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

4.  Davidson's  "History  of  Education." 

5.  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  I. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  origin  of  Rome  and  trace  the  resulting  am- 
bitious course  of  empire. 

2.  Trace  the  course  of  events  in  which  the  co-operative  am- 
bition of  the  Romans  recognized  Roman  individuality. 


EDUCATION   OF   THE  ANCIENT  ROMANS       99 

3.  How  did  the  Greek  nature-worship,  which  the  Romans 
adopted,  acquire  its  well-known  utilitarianism,  and  what  were 
the  effects  on  Roman  religion  as  a  moral  guarantee  and  as  a 
motive  in  Roman  contributions  to  after-ages? 

4.  What,  in  accord  with  her  fundamental  needs,  were  the  edu- 
cational ideals  of  "old"  Rome,  and  upon  what  quaUties  of  life 
did  these  ideals  place  the  emphasis? 

5.  Explain  the  fitness  of  means  to  ends  in  the  use  which  the 
"old"  Romans  made  of  the  home  and  "life  beyond  the  home" 
in  their  system  of  education. 

6.  Trace  in  detail  the  course  of  events  in  the  transition  from 
the  "old"  to  the  "new"  in  Roman  education. 

7.  What  was  the  attitude  of  the  elder  Cato  and  the  father  of 
Horace  toward  the  influx  of  Greek  ideas  into  Rome,  and  what 
did  they  do  for  their  sons? 

8.  What,  in  accord  with  her  "new"  needs,  were  the  ideals  of 
the  "new"  education  in  Rome?  How  did  these  new  ideals 
affect  social  classes? 

9.  Describe  the  elementary  schools  of  "new"  Rome,  going 
into  the  details  of  curriculum,  form,  and  methods.  Do  the 
same  things  with  the  grammar-schools,  rhetorical  schools,  and 
universities. 

10.  What  were  the  best  and  the  worst  things  in  the  "old" 
and  the  "new"  education  of  Rome? 

11.  Account  fully  for  "the  making"  and  services  of  Cicero, 
Seneca,  and  Quintilian. 


PART  II 
CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  IX 

CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION 
EARLY   CHRISTIANITY 

To  recapitulate — conquered  Greece  was  conquering 
her  Roman  conqueror,  pouring  out  her  culture  far  and 
wide,  east  and  south  and  west,  thus  reproducing  her 
"Greek  self"  in  far-flung  schools  and  universities. 
And  Rome  thus  conquered  by  Greek  intellect  and 
beauty-love  powerfully  orientalized,  was  giving  con- 
crete form  to  abstract  thought,  and  endowing  with  a 
blighting  practicaHty  all  she  was  adopting. 

It  was  into  the  midst  of  these  events,  and  when  the 
Maccabees  had  almost  ceased  in  their  patriotic  strug- 
gles with  Rome  for  Jewish  nationality,  that  there  was 
born  in  a  remote  corner  of  the  world-empire,  namely, 
in  Bethlehem  of  Judea,  the  world's  Messiah,  Jesus 
Christ.  And  although  the  angels  sang  "Peace  on 
earth,  good-will  to  men,"  the  great  ones  of  the  earth 
could  not  foresee  that  all  who  had  gone  before  him 
had  but  groped  in  the  dark,  and  that  he  alone  brought 
light  into  the  darkness,  saved  the  gold  from  the  dross, 
and  set  the  world  in  quest  of  final  ideals. 

100 


CHRISTIAN   EDUCATON  101 


CHRIST 


In  order  to  understand  even  to  a  limited  degree  the 
educational  revolution  which  Christ's  coming  pro- 
duced, and  also  in  order  that  we  may  furnish  ourselves 
with  his  world-conquering  ideals,  we  would  gladly  here 
and  now  make  him  the  subject  of  serious  and  sympa- 
thetic study. 

In  the  Making. — The  fact  that  Christ  was  born  in 
the  golden  days  of  Rome,  when  Augustus  Caesar  ruled 
the  world,  and  at  a  time  when  God's  chosen  people 
had  made  large  adjustments  to  their  theocratic  system 
of  education  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  postexile  condi- 
tions (see  chapter  on  Jewish  education),  helps  us  to 
understand  at  least  the  important  human  elements — 
not  to  speak  of  his  divinity — which  entered  into  the 
making  of  the  world's  incomparable  teacher. 

Jesus  was  brought  up  at  Nazareth,  where  Mary  and 
Joseph  came  with  him  after  their  flight  from  Bethlehem 
to  Egypt;  and  here,  at  the  crossing-place  of  the  na- 
tions, where  commerce  and  military  changes  afforded 
much  liberalizing  familiarity  with  all  the  neighboring 
races,  he  lived  with  them  up  to  the  time  of  his  ministry. 

The  first  teachers  of  Jesus  were  Mary  and  Joseph, 
as  all  the  connections  show.  It  was  at  their  knees 
that  he  must  have  learned  to  read  the  Scriptures. 

"From  the  modest  but  priceless  instructions  of 
home,"  as  Geikie  says  in  his  "Life  of  Christ,"  "Jesus 
would,  doubtless,  pass  to  school  in  the  synagogue, 
where  he  would  learn  more  of  the  law,  and  be  taught 
to  write,  or  rather,  to  print,  for  his  writing  would  be  in 
the  old  Hebrew  characters — the  only  ones  then  in  use." 
Even  the  "doctors"  of  Jerusalem,  with  whom,  as  we 


102  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

recall,  he  tarried  for  instructions  on  his  first  memorable 
journey  with  his  parents  to  the  Holy  City,  marvelled 
at  his  progress. 

The  great  national  festivals  regularly  held  every 
year  at  Jerusalem,  namely,  those  of  the  Passover,  the 
Pentecost,  and  the  Tabernacle,  must  have  contributed 
powerfully  to  the  education  of  a  mind  like  that  of 
Jesus.*  Then,  too,  in  July,  October,  January,  and 
March,  the  Jewish  community  at  Nazareth  observed 
different  events  in  the  national  history  with  more  or 
less  strictness,  thus  contributing  not  a  little  to  the 
general  effect. 

In  its  quiet  and  divinely  appointed  security,  the  life 
of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  must  have  been  a  wonderful 
education  in  the  book  of  nature.  The  gospels  show 
most  strikingly  that  nothing  in  his  environment  escaped 
the  eye  of  Jesus.  That  he  saw  with  unerring  keen- 
ness all  the  life  about  him  appears  from  the  illustra- 
tions which  he  used  in  teaching.  The  painted  lilies 
of  the  field,  the  sparrows  on  the  wing,  the  shepherd's 
lost  lamb — these  and  all  the  rest  are  his  intimates. 
Nor  does  he  fail  to  note  the  child  at  play,  the  toiler 
at  his  tasks,  the  beggar  at  the  gate,  the  prince  in  his 
apparel,  or  the  woman  in  her  home — he  sees  and  hears 
and  knows  them  all.  "He  must  have  looked  out  on 
the  world  of  men  from  the  calm  retreat  of  those  years 
as  he  doubtless  often  did  on  the  matchless  landscape 
from  the  hills  above  the  village.  The  strength  and 
weakness  of  the  systems  of  the  day;  the  lights  and 
shadows  of  the  human  world  would  be  watched  and 
noted  with  never-tiring  survey,  as  were  the  hills  and 
valleys,  the  clouds  and  sunshine  of  the  scene  around." 

*  Geikie's  "Life  of  Christ,"  p.  144. 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  103 

But,  humanly  speaking,  the  supreme  influence  in 
Jesus'  own  education  was  not  the  schooling  of  the 
synagogue,  not  the  larger  moulding  of  the  yearly  fes- 
tivals, nor  even  his  intimate  contact  with  nature  and 
life  about  him — the  credit  of  this  supreme  influence 
must  doubtless  be  given  to  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which 
he,  like  Timothy,  knew  from  a  child.  "In  such  a 
household  as  Joseph's  we  may  be  sure  they  were  in 
daily  use,  for  there,  if  anywhere,  the  rabbinical  rule 
would  be  strictly  observed,  that  three  who  eat  together 
without  talking  of  the  law  are  as  if  they  were  eating 
(heathen)  sacrifices."  His  profound  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures  is  evident  to  readers  of  the  gospels.  When, 
as  he  frequently  did,  he  exposed  the  false  teachers  of 
his  day,  it  was  by  direct  appeal  to  these  Scriptures, 
and  even  his  enemies  had  to  acknowledge  him  as  a 
great  teacher. 

In  the  process  of  Christ's  education,  his  human  na- 
ture was  evidently  subject  to  "the  same  gradual  de- 
velopment as  in  other  men,  such  a  development  as, 
by  its  even  and  steadfast  advance,  made  his  Hfe  appar- 
ently in  nothing  different  from  that  of  his  fellow 
townsmen,  else  they  would  not  have  felt  the  wonder 
at  him  which  they  afterward  evinced.  The  laws 
and  processes  of  ordinary  human  Hfe  must  have  been 
left  to  mould  and  form  his  manhood — the  same  habits 
of  inquiry;  the  same  need  of  collision  of  mind  with 
mind."  That  his  divine  nature,  never  separable  from 
the  human,  enriched  the  whole  process,  and  thus 
helped  to  produce  the  transcendent  results,  we  can 
hardly  doubt.  Only  the  issue  itself,  however,  is  abso- 
lutely plain,  and  that  is  that  Jesus  became  the  one 
incomparable  teacher  of  all  ages. 


104  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Christ's  gospel  for  teachers 

It  was  largely  because  they  had  failed  to  solve  the 
problems  of  human  origin  and  human  destiny — the 
two  supreme  questions  of  human  reason — that  the  an- 
cients failed  so  ignominiously  in  their  educational  sys- 
tems as  adjustments  of  the  claims  of  the  social  whole 
and  individuality.  These  claims  simply  could  not 
be  perfectly  adjusted  until  the  true  relation  of  man 
to  his  maker,  God,  was  rightly  understood.  What 
has  just  been  stated  also  explains  why  even  the  wisest 
of  the  ancients,  such  as  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle, 
and  all  the  eminent  Oriental  worthies  who  preceded 
them,  except  the  Jewish  representatives,  contributed 
so  little  that  still  lives  in  their  proposed  educational 
schemes.  We  owe  the  perfect  adjustment  of  all  hu- 
man relations  to  Christ,  and  him  alone;  for  he  alone 
taught  us  our  true  sonship  with  God  the  Father,  and 
the  moral  stewardship  of  such  sonship.  The  "chosen 
people"  knew  God  as  a  person,  the  "maker  of  heaven 
and  earth  and  all  that  in  them  is";  they  no  longer 
confused  God  the  maker  with  nature  the  creature;  but, 
under  the  law  and  the  prophets,  they  had  approached 
him  as  the  God  of  justice  and  not  also  as  a  God  of  love. 

Gospel  for  Teachers. — When  Christ  taught  even  the 
least  and  the  last  of  his  disciples  to  think  of  God  as 
"Our  Father,"  he  really  taught  not  only  the  father- 
hood of  God,  but  also  the  brotherhood  of  man,  and 
the  immortality  of  man.  The  last  two  are  evident 
and  inseparable  deductions  from  the  first,  and  have 
continued  to  be  the  fundamental  motives  in  a  series  of 
educational  revolutions  that  may  not  cease  until  time 
itself    must    cease.     The    immeasurable    dignity    and 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  105 

worth  which  these  two  Christian  doctrines  give  to  in- 
dividuality illumines,  as  if  in  letters  of  gold,  the  func- 
tion of  education  as  adjustment  to  life  itself — life  now, 
and  life  hereafter. 

Christian  Ideal.— Henceforth  the  claims  of  God  the 
Father  must  of  course  be  primary,  and  those  of  the 
social  whole  and  the  individual,  secondary.  "Seek 
ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  all  these  things 
shall  be  added."  In  this  new  adjustment  the  individual 
gains  his  freedom  from  the  despotism  to  which  he  was 
subject  among  the  ancients,  and  the  social  whole  must 
gain  that  vast  uplift  which  comes  from  the  conscious- 
ness of  sonship,  brotherhood,  and  immortality,  as  these 
have  been  brought  to  light  in  Christ.  The  distinguish- 
ing obligations  of  Christian  education  may  be  con- 
veniently considered  under  such  heads  as  nationality, 
caste,  slavery,  women,  and  children. 

Nationality. — In  order  that  education  may  be  really 
"Christian,"  it  must  recognize,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
origin  and  consequent  nobility  of  man  as  man;  it  must 
so  relate  the  individual  to  the  social  whole  as  to  make 
it  possible  for  each  to  serve  the  highest  interests  of 
the  other;  and  it  must  recognize  the  fact — most  im- 
portant of  all — that  as  a  child  of  God,  endowed  with 
moral  faculty,  each  and  every  man  is  responsible 
to  God,  in  time  and  eternity,  for  the  life  which  he 
lives. 

These  ideals  of  Christian  education  call  upon  the 
state  as  the  guardian  of  the  commonwealth  to  provide 
education  for  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men,  to  or- 
ganize and  supervise  effectively  all  such  forms  of  edu- 
cation as  may  tend  to  ameliorate  and  perfect  the 
philanthropic,  moral,  and  economic  welfare  of  the  social 


106  HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION 

whole,  and  finally  to  encourage  the  church  as  the  guard- 
ian of  eternal  interests  to  improve  the  morals  of  the 
social  whole  through  religion. 

Caste. — No  such  high  ideals  served  as  motives  in 
the  caste  systems  of  the  ancients.  Their  systems 
robbed  countless  multitudes  of  human  beings  of  all 
educational  opportunities,  sacrificed  the  welfare  of  the 
many  to  the  few,  and,  in  this  way  as  in  other  things, 
failed  to  satisfy  the  rightful  claims  of  God.  It  is  the 
glory  of  Christianity  that  it  opens  the  door  of  the 
school  to  every  boy  and  girl,  thus  bidding  all  alike, 
subject  only  to  God's  gifts  and  requirements,  to  qualify 
for  Ufe  here  and  hereafter. 

Slavery. — Slavery  was  the  invariable  concomitant 
of  ancient  caste  systems.  It  took  no  account  of  the 
soul,  except  so  far  as  intelligence  and  faithfulness 
would  increase  the  value  of  service,  and  the  body  of 
the  slave  was  the  master's  chattel,  or  worse  than  that. 
The  slave  could  be  bought,  sold,  bartered  for  another, 
punished,  and  killed,  at  the  master's  will.  The  feeling 
of  infinite  "distance"  which  "color"  and  "race" 
sometimes  produce  in  us,  was  largely  present.  That 
in  origin  and  destiny  the  master  and  slave  were  brothers 
had  not  occurred  even  to  such  philosophers  as  Plato 
and  Aristotle.  For  the  reasons  just  enumerated,  the 
children  of  slaves,  as  a  rule,  except  in  later  Greece  and 
Rome,  received  no  education.  Degeneracy  was  the 
fatal  result. 

It  was  only  when  the  slave  and  his  master  began  to 
understand  the  Saviour's  "Our  Father,"  that  the 
shackles  began  to  fall,  and  that  these  humbled  sons  of 
God  could  not  be  deprived  much  longer  of  the  privilege 
of  education  and  the  destiny  of  man  as  man. 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  107 

Women. — Woman  occupied  an  inferior  position 
among  all  the  ancients,  except  perhaps  among  the 
Jews.  In  some  countries,  Persia  for  example,  even  the 
women  of  the  higher  castes  were  hardly  better  off  than 
slaves.  Only  a  few  of  the  great  philosophers,  among 
them  Plato,  believed  that  women  were  equally  capable 
of  education  with  men.  Those  ancients  who  had  at- 
tained to  the  concept  of  immortality  appear  to  have 
denied  this  hope  to  woman. 

The  whole  attitude  of  Jesus  is  opposed  to  this  an- 
cient treatment  of  woman.  He  makes  her  man's 
equal  and  honored  helpmeet  in  all  the  spheres  of  life, 
and  his  redeemed  coheir  of  life  eternal.  She  is  there- 
fore entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  education  which 
fit  her  for  her  noble  destiny.  Only  the  Jewish  women 
were  mentally  and  institutionally  ready  for  such  "good 
news."  It  was  long  before  the  world-empire  which 
Christ  presently  conquered  could  understand  the  mes- 
sage in  full. 

Children. — The  ancients,  as  we  here  recall,  failed  to 
recognize  the  rights  of  childhood.  Weaklings  and 
cripples  had  but  small  chance  to  live.  Infanticide,  ex- 
posure, slavery,  and  other  fates  were  not  considered 
crimes  against  childhood.  The  great  possibilities  of 
primary  education,  apart  from  the  home,  were  poorly 
understood,  as  we  gather  from  the  lack  of  provisions 
for  the  purpose,  and  from  the  expressed  opinions  of 
philosophers. 

Jesus  bade  his  disciples  let  the  Httle  ones  come  to 
him.  Their  very  helplessness  appealed  to  his  love. 
He  who  "knew"  what  was  in  "man,"  and  foresaw  the 
possibilities  of  education  for  a  little  child,  urged  his 
followers  to  cherish  them  and  to  "bring  them  up  in 


108  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  fear  of  the  Lord."  The  world  into  which  the 
Saviour  of  little  children  came  was  not  easily  convinced 
that  they  are  entitled  to  the  privilege  of  special  educa- 
tion. In  this  respect  as  in  others,  thinkers  generally 
agreed  with  common  practice.  Quintilian,  as  we  re- 
call, was  the  notable  exception.  Perhaps — thanks  to 
the  Froebels  and  Montessoris — the  world  has  become 
more  nearly  "Christian"  in  child  education  than  in 
any  other  form. 

Christ  must  be  considered  the  world's  incomparable 
teacher,  not  only  because  of  the  messages  of  hope  that 
he  brought,  but  also  because  of  the  methods  which  he 
used. 

THE  METHODS   OF   CHRIST 

The  "divine"  in  Christ  combines  with  the  "human" 
in  his  pedagogy.  This,  of  course,  is  the  only  complete 
explanation  of  his  teaching  power,  and  in  this  coalition 
of  his  two  natures  we  cannot  hope  to  follow  him  com- 
pletely, but  perhaps  we  can  follow  the  human  in  his 
methods  with  sufficient  exactness  to  make  him  our 
great  ideal.  The  human  in  Christ's  method — from 
which,  as  just  acknowledged,  we  can  never  wholly 
separate  the  di\dne — may  be  considered  under  such 
heads  as  his  insight,  sympathy,  and  skill. 

Insight. — In  order  that  we  humans  may  know  how 
to  adapt  means  to  ends  in  the  teaching  process,  it  is 
necessary  for  Us  to  study  the  child.  Perfect  knowl- 
edge of  the  child,  all  other  things  being  correlate, 
is  the  only  final  guarantee  of  perfect  pedagogy.  The 
most  illustrious  educational  reformers  whom  the  world 
has  ever  produced  have,  without  exception,  deplored 
our  imperfect  attainment  to  such  knowledge.     There 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  109 

may  be  locked  doors  and  closed  windows  that  will  ever 
bar  us  from  the  presence  chamber  of  the  inmost  soul 
of  others,  and  who  is  there  that  knows,  or  can  ever 
hope  to  know  completely,  even  himself ! 

The  Saviour  of  the  world  was  not  subject  to  such 
limitation.  Of  him  of  whom  it  is  written  that  he  was 
"Son  of  God"  as  well  as  "son  of  man,"  it  is  also 
written  that  "he  knew  what  is  in  man,"  and  needed 
not  that  any  should  testify  of  him.  The  most  critical 
study  of  Christ's  teaching  process,  including  the  wealth 
of  his  illustrative  materials,  confirms  this  judgment. 
In  this  respect,  as  in  others,  he  was,  as  the  German 
poet  Herder  says,  "the  realized  ideal  of  humanity,'* 
toward  which  the  teachers  of  all  after- ages  must  press 
forward  into  greater  nearness,  even  if  his  marvellous 
perfection  can  never  be  attained. 

Sympathy. — It  would  be  difficult  to  say  offhand 
— perhaps  we  shall  never  know — whether  the  teaching 
process  is  more  dependent  upon  sympathy  or  upon 
insight  for  complete  success.  There  are  some  things 
bearing  on  this  question  that  we  know  very  well. 
Teachers  who  cannot  feel  what  their  pupils  feel,  and 
who  do  not  care,  cannot  really  know  the  children, 
and  seldom  work  hard  enough  to  win  success  as  teach- 
ers. On  the  other  hand,  teachers  who  really  like 
children,  set  out  to  ascertain  and  to  do  what  is  best. 
In  such  cases,  the  mastery  of  means  to  ends  is  joy. 
Sincere  enthusiasm,  tireless  energy,  and  patient  for- 
bearance, together  with  other  splendid  prerequisites  of 
success  in  teaching,  are  intimately  bound  up  with 
sympathetic  attitude.  It  was  this  sequential  quality 
of  sympathy  with  children  that  made  such  educational 
reformers  as  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel  benefactors  of  the 


110  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

human  race.  In  other  words,  sympathy,  in  all  such 
cases,  transmutes  insight  into  action. 

Then,  too,  sympathy  is  contagious.  It  captivates 
and  charms  the  child,  who  therefore  lets  down  the  bars 
of  many  otherwise  closed  doors,  and  opens  many  other- 
wise closed  windows  of  his  inmost  self.  It  is  this  same 
quality  that  often  makes  the  learner  who  is  hard  to 
understand  an  open  book  to  his  mother. 

The  divine-human  S3nnpathy  of  Christ  makes  him 
the  unique  fact  of  all  history.  Just  as  he,  the  world's 
Redeemer,  "gave  himself  a  ransom  for  many,"  so  he 
gave  himself  to  all  whom  he  taught.  He  was  the  ab- 
solutely faithful  friend.  In  his  ministry  there  was  room 
in  the  heart  for  the  least  and  the  last  as  well  as  for  the 
greatest.  The  little  ones  whom  he  took  up  in  his  arms 
to  bless,  Mary  at  his  feet  choosing  the  better  part,  the 
multitudes  on  whom  he  had  "compassion  because 
they  had  no  shepherd,"  Nicodemus,  a  ruler  of  the 
Jews — he  gave  himself  to  all  alike,  according  to  the 
measure  of  their  needs. 

And  in  the  giving  he  became  the  attractive  "One 
among  ten  thousand  and  altogether  lovely"  to  his 
hearers,  nor  was  there  any  sacrifice  of  dignity  when 
he  turned  all  distance  into  nearness.  His  hearers  hung 
in  reverent  awe  upon  his  words,  ready  for  the  message 
he  would  bring.  This  infinite  sympathy  of  Christ, 
as  well  as  the  momentous  fact  that  he  "lived"  what  he 
taught,  let  it  be  reverently  said,  accounted  very  largely 
for  the  recognized  propelling  force  of  Christ's  ideas. 
The  great  Napoleon  must  have  felt  this  connection 
when  he  said:  "Everything  in  Him  amazes  me.  His 
spirit  outreaches  mine,  and  His  will  confounds  me. 
Comparison  is  impossible  between  Him  and  any  other 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  111 

being  in  the  world.     He  is  truly  a   being  by  Him- 
self." 

Skill. — The  unique  insight  and  sympathy  of  Christ 
as  a  teacher  prepare  us  for  a  study  of  his  incomparable 
skill.  He  drew  his  illustrations  from  nature  and  life 
in  perfect  conformity  to  the  present  and  future  needs 
of  his  hearers.  Take  for  example  the  use  which  he 
made  of  "the  sower  that  went  forth  to  sow,"  the  "fig- 
tree"  on  which  the  planter  found  no  fruit,  "the  wind 
that  bloweth  where  it  listeth,"  or  the  use  to  which  he 
put  such  parables  as  the  "straight  gate"  and  the 
"narrow  way,"  "if  God  so  clothe  the  grass,"  the 
"ninety  and  nine,"  etc.  The  apperceptive  relation  of 
means  to  ends  in  Christ's  parables  continues  to  evoke 
the  highest  praise  of  expert  opinion.  The  unerring 
aptness  of  his  illustrations,  the  suggestive  wealth  of 
implied  inductions,  and  his  emphasis  on  lessons  worth 
while,  must  forever  charm  and  delight  those  who 
learn  at  his  feet.  Even  if  we  cannot  hope  to  approach 
him,  we  can  never  be  content  unless  we  always  try. 
In  him  who  spake  as  no  man  ever  spake,  Karl  Schmidt 
sees  embodied  all  "the  eternal  principles  of  pedagogy.'* 

CHRISTIANITY   VS.   PAGANISM 

The  new  ideas  which  Christ  brought  into  the  world 
were  so  new  and  so  revolutionary  that  they  came  into 
sharp  collision  with  the  old.  This  was  largely  true 
with  respect  to  Judaism,  in  fulfilment  of  whose  law 
and  prophets  Christ  had  come,  but  who  could  not — • 
or  would  not — recognize  their  promised  king  in  him 
who  had  come;  and  it  was  specially  true  with  respect 
to  paganism,   for  the  ultimate  overthrow  of  which, 


112  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

with  all  its  hideous  perversions  of  God's  kingdom,  the 
Lord  Christ  had  come. 

A  brief  study  of  the  various  hindrances  with  which 
early  Christianity  and  Christian  education  had  to 
struggle  will  prepare  us  for  the  study  of  the  actual 
progress  of  events  in  the  great  collision  itself.  Among 
these  hindrances  we  must  include  the  lowly  ranks  from 
which  the  earliest  Christian  converts  were  gathered, 
together  with  their  poverty,  ignorance,  and  weakness 
of  number,  and  the  persecutions  to  which  the  Roman 
emperors  subjected  them. 

Poverty. — The  lowly  Nazarene  selected  as  disciples 
Galilean  fishermen  and  others  from  the  common  walks 
of  life.  The  converts  of  Christianity,  outside  of  Judea, 
consisted  largely  of  common  toilers,  servants,  and 
slaves.  It  goes  without  saying  that  they  were  usually 
poor.  And  to  make  matters  worse,  they  would  have 
no  opportunity  to  acquire  property,  nor  would  it  be 
permitted.  If  property-holders  became  converts,  their 
property  was  confiscated,  and  they  faced  both  per- 
secution and  death.  Under  such  circumstances  there 
was  little  hope  for  the  education  of  their  children. 

Ignorance. — When  it  is  considered  that,  in  addition 
to  their  poverty,  many  of  these  early  Christians,  as 
can  readily  be  imagined,  were  also  usually  illiterate 
and  even  ignorant,  the  desperateness  of  the  case  is 
apparent.  In  thousands  of  cases  these  early  con- 
verts hardly  themselves  understood  the  new  religion 
which  they  accepted  simply  because  it  offered  "hope," 
and  were  consequently  sorry  teachers  of  their  children. 
In  spite  of  all  such  handicaps  these  early  Christians 
found  ways  and  means  to  make  at  least  a  start  in  the 
bringing  up  of  children,  whom  they  now  were  taught 
to  regard  as  "gifts  of  God." 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  113 

Number. — At  first,  of  course,  the  number  of  con- 
verts was  too  small  and  too  scattered  to  establish 
schools  of  their  own,  even  if  their  poverty  and  igno- 
rance had  not  stood  in  the  way.  The  only  thing  that 
was  left  for  parents  was  to  teach  children  what  they 
could,  or  to  send  them  to  pagan  schools  for  the  rudi- 
ments of  learning.  Knowing  the  danger  of  the  latter 
alternative,  the  early  Christians,  in  order  to  be  "sepa- 
rate from  the  world,"  tried  hard  to  establish  schools 
of  their  own  as  soon  as  their  number  and  conditions 
made  it  possible.     Of  this  we  shall  learn  later  on. 

Books. — The  fact  that  there  were  no  Christian 
books  made  the  process  of  education  doubly  hard  for 
these  early  Christians,  even  when  they  found  it  possible 
to  start  schools  of  their  own.  Condemning  pagan 
literature — for  which  of  course  there  was  reason  enough 
— they  had  to  be  content  v/ith  simple  oral  lessons  on 
important  topics  of  faith,  together  with  the  simple 
rites  and  duties  of  religion. 

Emperors.— The  Roman  emperors,  in  the  interest 
of  politics,  as  we  have  seen,  were  usually  ready  enough 
to  grant  the  gods  of  the  conquered  nations  a  place  in 
the  Pantheon,  but-  there  was  no  room  there  for  Christ. 
The  new  value  set  on  individuahty  and  brotherhood 
and  purity  was  so  repugnant  to  haughty,  vice-eaten 
imperial  Rome,  that  persecution  followed  persecution.* 
The  Christians,  on  account  of  the  secret  haunts  to 
which  they  repaired  for  worship,  were  suspected  of  all 
sorts  of  crimes  against  the  state,  and  this  was  an  addi- 
tional cause  for  persecution.  Under  all  these  cruel 
circumstances,  the  cause  of  Christian  education  suf- 
fered terribly,  and  yet,  as  we  shall  see,  substantial 
progress  was  made  almost  from  the  beginning. 
*  Myers'  "General  History." 


114  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

OTHERWORLDLINESS 

The  most  conspicuous  motive  in  early  Christianity 
was  the  almost  universal  belief  in  the  nearness  of  the 
second  advent  of  Christ.  This  ardent  conviction 
placed  the  emphasis  upon  the  moral  and  the  future  life 
— otherworldliness,  as  George  Eliot  calls  it — instead  of 
the  earthly  and  present,  which  had  so  long  been  over- 
emphasized in  the  pagan  world,  "There  was,"  as 
Karl  Schmidt  so  eloquently  says,  "a  great  withdrawal 
of  man  within  himself,  into  that  part  of  his  nature 
which  unites  him  to  God,  and  that  belongs  not  to  the 
perishable,  but  to  the  imperishable;  not  to  the  visible, 
but  to  the  invisible  world.  The  supernatural  laid  hold 
of  men's  minds  with  a  mighty  energy.  Man,  as  the 
son  of  heaven,  became  a  stranger  upon  this  earth,  and 
esteemed  the  splendor  of  this  world  as  of  httle  value. 
The  world  in  all  its  beauty  had  been  tested  by  an- 
tiquity, and  had  not  afforded  the  lasting  peace  prom- 
ised of  it.  Heaven  now  took  its  place,  and  the  citizen 
of  heaven  displaced  in  a  measure  the  citizen  of  earth." 

This  world-disowning  "asceticism"  shaped  Chris- 
tian education  from  the  very  beginning,  and  continued 
to  be  the  most  powerful  impulse  all  through  the  Middle 
Ages.  We  see  it  at  work,  as  just  noted,  in  the  educa- 
tion which  the  earliest  Christians  gave  their  own  chil- 
dren, and  then  in  the  catechumen  schools,  the  cate- 
chetical schools,  and  the  Church  Fathers. 

The  Catechumen  Schools.^ — -As  soon  as  it  became 
possible,  through  increase  of  numbers  and  more  fa- 
vorable conditions  generally,  the  Christians  of  the  first 
century,  in  order  to  provide  their  children  with  the 
kind  of  education  required  by  their  otherworldliness, 
took  measures  to  commit  the  task  to  men  of  special 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  115 

fitness.  Thus  arose  the  "catechumen  schools,"  so 
called  from  a  Greek  word  meaning  to  instruct  orally, 
by  asking  questions  and  receiving  answers,  and  then 
adding  explanations  and  corrections.  The  teachers 
were  accordingly  called  "  catechists,"  and  the  pupils 
"catechumens."  It  was  the  purpose  of  these  schools 
to  prepare  the  catechumens,  who  gradually  included 
prospective  converts  from  Judaism  and  paganism  as 
well  as  the  children  of  believers,  for  church  membership. 

The  course  lasted  anywhere  from  a  few  months,  as 
in  the  beginning,  to  several  years,  as  in  later  centuries. 
It  included  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  other  articles  of  faith, 
together  with  simple  psalmody.  Sometimes  the  rudi- 
ments of  reading  and  writing  were  added. 

The  catechist,  appointed  by  the  church,  and  selected 
on  account  of  greater  fitness,  met  his  catechumens  in 
the  local  church  or  in  his  private  home  for  lesson  hours 
several  times  a  week  or  every  day. 

This  system  of  religious  and  moral  instruction  be- 
came very  general,  and  continued  to  be  the  practice 
after  Christianity  had  vanquished  paganism. 

The  Catechetical  Schools. — The  catechetical  schools, 
properly  so  called,  were  catechumen  schools  of  a  higher 
order.  It  was  their  purpose  to  prepare  teachers  and 
leaders  for  the  church,  and  to  combat  successfully  all 
prejudice  against  the  church  among  the  great  and 
learned. 

The  first  of  these  catechetical  schools — and  the  type 
of  them  all — arose  at  Alexandria,*  the  university  town 

*  It  was  here,  as  we  recall,  that  a  committee  of  seventy  learned  Jews 
had  translated  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek  in  order  that  the  rising 
generation  of  Jews  might  be  able  to  read  it  in  the  language  now  required. 
This  translation  is  known  as  the  "  Septuagint." 


116  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

of  the  Ptolemies,  about  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. Its  founder  was  Athenagoras,  so  it  is  said,  but 
it  first  came  into  prominence  through  Pantaenus,  a 
learned  Stoic  convert,  as  its  head,  179  A.  D.  Alex- 
andria* had  early  become  the  centre  of  Jewish  Chris- 
tianity, and  when,  in  the  course  of  time,  this  Christian 
community  became  numerous  and  strong  enough*  to 
open  a  synagogue  or  church,  they  connected  therewith 
a  school.  The  community,  growing  richer  and  larger, 
could  not  keep  her  promising  young  men  from  attend- 
ing the  lectures  of  the  learned  Greek  but  heathen 
university  professors.  Thus  it  came  about  that,  in 
order  to  counteract  the  danger  of  such  contact  with 
pagan  learning,  the  catechumen  school  of  the  Alex- 
andrian synagogue  became  a  theological  seminary  in 
which  the  Holy  Scriptures  were  taught  side  by  side 
with  Graeco-Roman  philosophy. 

No  special  buildings  were  appropriated,  and  the 
catechists,  as  in  the  catechumen  schools,  met  the 
student  in  his  own  home  or  some  convenient  part  of 
the  church. t 

"The  students  were  of  both  sexes,  of  very  different 
ages.  Some  were  converts  preparing  for  baptism, 
some  idolaters  seeking  for  light,  some  Christians  read- 
ing, as  we  should  say,  for  orders  or  for  the  cultivation 
of  their  understanding."  J 

At  first  the  course  of  instruction  was  not  very  defi- 
nitely organized,  but  later  it  embraced  training  of  a  very 
high  order  in  mathematics,  physics,  philology,  philos- 

*  Davidson's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  122. 

f  The  Alexandrian  catechists  received  no  fixed  salary,  but  were  sup- 
ported by  gifts  from  their  pupils. 

X  Davidson's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  123. 


CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION  117 

ophy,  and  theology.  All  other  subjects  were  to  be 
handmaids  of  theology.  The  connection  was  rather  a 
compromise  than  a  conflict  with  heathen  learning. 
Clement,  one  of  its  earliest  and  most  distinguished 
heads,  in  describing  the  attitude  of  the  institution 
toward  heathen  learning,  said:  *'The  Mosaic  law  and 
heathen  philosophy  do  not  stand  in  direct  opposition 
to  each  other,  but  are  related  like  fragments  of  a  single 
truth,  like  the  pieces,  as  it  were,  of  a  shattered  whole. 
.  .  .  Both  prepared  the  way,  but  in  a  different  man- 
ner, for  Christianity." 

Although  the  Alexandrian  catechetical  school,  likely 
through  its  close  afl&liation  with  the  city  university  and 
the  university  Kbrary,  to  which  both  the  students  and 
teachers  had  access,  reached  the  highest  eminence, 
similar  institutions  flourished  at  Antioch,  Athens, 
Edessa,  Nisibis,  and  elsewhere.  Long  before  these 
schools  had  reached  their  greatest  attainments,  the 
church  had  begun  to  organize,  at  the  sees  or  seats  of 
great  bishops,  the  so-called  "cathedral"  schools,  or 
"theological  seminaries"  proper. 

The  Church  Fathers. — The  final  conflict  between 
Christianity  and  paganism  is  seen  to  best  advantage 
in  the  attitude  of  the  "  Church  Fathers."  *  They  were 
usually  converts  from  the  learned  classes  of  paganism. 
Those  who  were  contemporary  with  Christ's  apostles 
are  known  as  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  and  the  later  ones, 
because  of  the  part  they  took  in  establishing  and  de- 

*"The  early  teachers  and  expounders  of  Christianity,  who,  next  to 
the  Apostles,  were  the  founders,  leaders,  and  defenders  of  the  Christian 
Church,  and  whose  writings,  so  far  as  they  are  extant,  are  the  main 
sources  for  the  history,  doctrines,  and  observances  of  the  Church  in 
the  early  ages,"  are  commonly  known  as  "  Church  Fathers." 


118  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

fending  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  are  called  the 
"Apologetes." 

Greek  Fathers. — During  the  first  three  centuries  these 
learned  Greek  converts  to  Christianity,  as  noted  in 
Clement's  case,  generally  continued  to  pay  a  good 
deal  of  homage  to  pagan  culture,  and  even  when,  as 
it  happened  in  the  fourth  century,  this  admiration  for 
pagan  culture  waned,  Basil  the  Great  and  other  think- 
ers were  not  willing  to  exclude  it  from  Christian  schools. 

(i)  Justyn  Martyr,  a  second-century  converted 
teacher  of  philosophy,  continued  to  teach  Greek  phi- 
losophy. He  claimed  that  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Her- 
aclitus  were  Christians  before  Christ  came,  and  that 
although  philosophy  fell  short,  it  had  the  same  high 
ends  as  Christianity. 

(2)  Clement  (160-215),  the  successor  of  Pantaenus  at 
Alexandria,  held  that  Plato  was  Moses  Atticized,  and 
that  pagan  philosophy  was  a  pedagogue  to  bring  the 
world  to  Christ. 

(3)  Origen  (185-254),  the  successor  of  Clement,  and 
the  most  learned  of  the  Christian  Fathers,  said,  in 
speaking  of  the  sciences  of  the  Greeks:  "Philosophy, 
rightly  studied,  disposes  us  to  the  study  of  Christi- 
anity." 

(4)  St.  Basil  (331-379),  in  whose  century  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Christians  to  pagan  learning  and  especially 
to  Greek  philosophy  had  become  more  pronounced, 
united  with  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  (325-390)  to  show 
that  Greek  literature  is  helpful  in  instruction  both  in 
principle  and  event,  and  that  it  leads  to  the  higher 
life  both  by  precept  and  by  example.  And  yet — and 
it  shows  that  Christianity  was  finally  winning — St. 
Basil,  in  speaking  of  the  education  of  children,  sums 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  119 

up  his  final  judgment  thus:  "The  choice  lies  between 
two  alternatives:  a  liberal  education  which  you  may 
get  by  sending  your  pupils  to  the  public  [pagan] 
schools,  or  the  salvation  of  their  souls,  which  you 
secure  by  sending  them  to  the  [Christian]  monks. 
Which  is  to  gain  the  day,  science  or  the  soul?  If  you 
can  unite  both  advantages,  do  so  by  all  means;  but 
if  not,  choose  the  most  precious."  * 

(5)  St.  Chrysostom  (347-411),  though  not  in  con- 
demnation, it  is  true,  yet  with  greater  disparagement, 
tells  us  that  he  has  long  ago  laid  aside  such  follies  on 
the  ground  that  they  are  only  child's  play. 

Latin  Fathers. — The  Latin  Fathers,  unlike  the  Greek, 
were  opposed  almost  from  the  first  to  pagan  learning. 
The  Roman  mind,  as  we  here  recall,  admired  practical 
achievement  and  cared  little  for  philosophy,  and  the 
Latin  Fathers,  in  their  opposition  to  pagan  culture, 
were  simply  the  interpreters  and  mouthpiece  of  this 
Roman  mind.  Judaism  with  its  ethical  impulse,  and 
Revelation  with  its  emphasis  on  the  future,  appealed 
more  powerfully  to  them  than  Hellenism  with  its  in- 
tellectual subtleties  and  its  dramatic  ceremonies.  We 
are  not  surprised,  therefore,  that  the  most  represen- 
tative Fathers,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  all  had  been 
teachers  and  steeped  in  pagan  culture,  eventually 
discountenanced  and  even  forbade  such  study  among 
believers. 

(i)  TertuUian  (150-230),  the  earliest  of  the  Latin 
Fathers,  in  his  "Prescriptions  against  Heresies,"  ex- 
presses this  attitude  of  the  West  very  definitely: 
"What  indeed  has  Athens  to  do  with  Jerusalem? 
What  concord  is  there  between  the  Academy  and  the 
*  Monroe's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  240. 


120  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Church?  .  .  .  Away  with  all  attempts  to  produce  a 
mottled  Christianity  of  Stoic,  Platonic,  and  dialectic 
[Aristotelian]  composition ! " 

(2)  In  St.  Jerome  (331-423),  author  of  the  "Vulgate," 
a  Latin  version  of  the  Bible,  this  conflict  between  the 
Christian  faith  and  classical  learning  became  most 
clearly  defined.  While  we  know,  from  his  habit  of 
quoting  the  classical  authors,  that  he  found  it  hard  to 
condemn,  he  nevertheless  expresses  his  best  judgment 
in  the  matter  in  the  celebrated  "Letter  to  Laeta," 
where  he  is  in  doubt  whether  such  authors  should  be 
permitted  at  all.  If  so,  their  study  should  be  "rather 
to  judge  them  than  to  follow." 

(3)  In  St.  Augustine  (354-430),  author  of  the  famous 
"City  of  God,"  and  voluminous  writer  on  education, 
we  see  the  same  powerful  attachment  to  pagan  learning 
overpowered  by  better  judgment,  and  his  decision 
against  it.  He  is  considered  personally  responsible  for 
the  prohibition  of  philosophical  and  literary  study 
made  by  the  Council  of  Carthage,  and  even  for  the 
suppression  of  pagan  schools  (529  A.  D.)  by  an  edict 
of  Justinian. 

Thus  Christian  education,  though  in  some  respects 
permanently  modified  and  enriched,  was  left  alone  in 
the  field  for  a  while  to  work  out  its  powerful  impulse  of 
otherworldliness.  This  blow  to  pagan  learning,  to- 
gether with  the  coming  of  the  Teutons,  ushered  in  the 
"Dark  Ages." 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers' " General  History."  ' 

2.  Geikie's"Lifeof  Christ." 

3.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

4.  Monroe's  "Text-Book  on  Education." 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  121 

5.  Davidson's  "History  of  Education." 

6.  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  I. 

7.  Graves'  "Students'  Text-Book." 

8.  Duggan's  "History  of  Education." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  long  process  of  amalgamation  of  ideals  was  hardly 
yet  at  its  height  when  Christ  was  born? 

2.  Go  into  the  details  of  Christ's  education,  giving  proper 
credit  to  the  various  elements.  Can  we  account  for  him  wholly 
on  human  grounds? 

3.  What  human  relations,  so  imperfectly  understood  even  by 
the  greatest  minds  among  the  ancients,  did  Christ  explain  com- 
pletely ? 

4.  What  recognition  does  the  Christian  ideal  accord  to  the 
claims  of  individuality,  the  social  whole,  and  God? 

5.  What,  according  to  this  ideal,  becomes  the  task  of  the 
Christian  state? 

6.  Explain  the  educational  redemption  which  Christ  brought 
to  caste  men,  slaves,  women,  and  children,  going  fully  into  de- 
tails. 

7.  What  was  it  in  his  method  of  teaching  that  distinguished 
him  from  all  other  teachers,  and  thus  made  him  incomparable? 

8.  Does  psychology  account  completely  for  his  marvellous 
insight,  sympathy,  and  skill?     Discuss  in  detail. 

g.  What  were  some  of  the  hindrances  which  made  it  difficult 
for  the  early  Christians  to  work  out  the  educational  redemption 
to  which  they  were  entitled? 

10.  Explain  the  difficulties  of  their  poverty,  ignorance,  small 
number,  lack  of  books,  and  the  attitude  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
going  fully  into  details. 

11.  What  was  the  "otherworldliness,"  or  asceticism,  so  con- 
spicuously the  motive  of  early  Christian  education? 

12.  Trace  the  origin,  purpose,  curriculum,  details  of  method, 
and  history  of  the  catechumen  schools. 

13.  Describe  the  Alexandrian  catechetical  school — and  others 
— going  into  the  details  of  purpose,  origin,  organization,  cur- 
riculum, attitude  toward  paganism,  teachers,  pupils,  and  his- 
tory. 


122  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

14.  What  were  the  Church  Fathers?     Describe  their  origin. 

15.  What  was  the   attitude  of   the   Greek   Fathers  toward 
paganism  from  century  to  century? 

16.  What  was  the  attitude  of  the  Latin  Fathers  toward  pagan- 
ism from  century  to  century  ? 


CHAPTER  X 

CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION 

(continued) 

MIDDLE   AGES 

The  fall  of  Rome  (476  A.  D.)  following  the  suc- 
cessive attacks  which  the  barbarians*  under  Alaric, 
Attila,  and  Genseric,  together  with  other  great  leaders, 
dehvered  upon  the  empire  already  crumbling  under 
corruptions  from  within,  and  the  generally  disturbed 
conditions  of  society  which  succeeded  all  these  events, 
left  the  church — especially  after  Justinian  had  closed 
the  pagan  schools — the  sole  custodian  of  education  for 
centuries.  She  fulfilled  this  mission  with  great  credit 
to  herself,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that,  under  the 
too  powerful  dominance  of  asceticism,  or  otherworld- 
liness,  her  development  of  education  was,  from  many 
points  of  view,  seriously  one-sided. 

We  shall  attempt,  in  this  chapter,  to  explain  the 
course  of  events  from  the  time  when  the  church  first 
assumed  her  trust  to  the  time  when,  on  account  of  her 
failure  to  recognize  the  right  of  individual  judgment, 
and  on  other  accounts,  she  had  to  undergo  thorough 
reformation.  The  whole  subject  may  be  conveniently 
considered  under  the  following  general  topics:  The 
church  schools;  the  educational  dream  of  Charlemagne, 
the  great  friend  of  the  church  schools,  and  what  came 
of  his  dream  through  feudaKsm;  scholasticism;  the 
educational  facilities  which  the  Crusades,  fathered  by 

*  Myers'  "General  History." 
123 


124  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

the  church,  produced;  what  the  Mohammedans  con- 
tributed to  one  of  these  results,  namely,  the  univer- 
sities; the  brethren  of  the  "Common  Life";  the  rise 
of  modern  Hterature,  and  the  revival  of  learning,  which 
paved  the  way  for  the  sixteenth-century  reformation 
of  the  church. 

THE  CHURCH  SCHOOLS 

When  through  the  decree  of  Justinian  (529),  closing 
pagan  schools,  the  church  became  the  sole  custodian 
of  education,  her  burden  was  almost  greater  than  she 
could  bear.  In  the  interest  of  the  controlling  "other- 
worldly" impulse  which,  through  the  extreme  corrup- 
tion of  the  Roman  Empire,  was  becoming  still  more 
insistent,  if  anything,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries, 
the  catechumen  schools,  preparing  for  church  member- 
ship, and  the  cathedral  schools  (bishops'  schools),  pre- 
paring for  the  priesthood,  had  to  be  kept  constantly  in 
mind.  But  the  great  work  of  completely  converting 
the  Teuton  hosts  who  had  taken  possession  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  of  welding  the  Christian  world 
into  a  spiritual  empire,  like  that  of  Rome,  induced 
the  church  to  grant  the  monopoly  of  education  to 
that  remarkable  "otherworldly"  organization  known  as 
"monasticism." 

MONASTICISM 

Origin  and  Nature  of  Monasticism. — Paganism  had 
emphasized  the  present  above  the  future,  and  the  body 
above  the  soul.  The  belief  of  the  early  Christians  in 
the  immediate  nearness  of  the  "second  advent"  re- 
versed the  order  of  these  interests,  as  has  already  been 
stated,  so  that  presently,  certainly  before  the  close  of 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  125 

the  third  century,  choice  spirits,  especially  among  the 
clergy,  renounced  the  world  as  completely  as  they 
could  by  withdrawing  into  deserts  and  forests  to  live 
a  life  of  contemplation  and  bodily  mortification  as  a 
higher  preparation  for  the  coming  of  the  Lord.  In 
time  this  deliberate  self-isolation  became  an  institu- 
tion of  marvellous  force,  called  *'monasticism,"  from 
the  Greek  word  iJiovo<ij  meaning  "alone." 

Spread. — Monasticism  had  its  origin  in  Egypt, 
where  it  gained  its  earliest  prominence  through  the 
celebrated  St.  Anthony,  who  began  his  life  of  self- 
isolation  there  in  305  A.  D.  He  was  a  hermit,  pure 
and  simple,  like  many  before  and  after  him.  As  early 
as  330,  Pachomius,  probably  because  he  recognized 
the  self-defeating  strain  and  selfishness  of  the  hermit 
life,  founded  a  "family"  of  brother  hermits  on  an 
island  in  the  Nile.  In  this  community  life  of  hermits 
the  principle  of  self-isolation  was  not  abandoned,  it  is 
true,  but,  by  permitting  association  at  meal-times, 
prayers,  and  religious  services,  the  strain  was  suffi- 
ciently modified  to  make  it  at  least  endurable.  St. 
Basil  introduced  this  "cenobite,"  or  family,  monasti- 
cism into  Greece  in  350,  and  Athanasius  and  Jerome 
into  Rome  a  little  before  or  a  little  later,  where  it,  in- 
stead of  the  hermit  type,  became  the  model  for  the 
whole  Western  world.  For  about  two  centuries  each 
separate  community  was  governed  by  rulers  of  its  own 
invention,  but  always  in  harmony  with  the  funda- 
mental ideals.  In  the  year  529,  the  year  in  which,  as 
we  recall,  Justinian  closed  the  pagan  schools,  St. 
Benedict,  a  Roman  patrician,  as  an  escape  from  the 
scandals  and  corruption  of  Rome,  founded  the  mon- 
astery of  Monte  Cassino,  not  far  from  Naples.     He 


126  HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION 

drew  up  a  monastic  constitution,  consisting  of  seventy- 
three  articles,  in  which  he  dealt  in  great  detail  with 
the  organization  of  this  monastery  and  its  daily  life. 
The  code,  or  rule,  of  St.  Benedict  became  the  model 
for  nearly  all  the  monasteries  of  the  West,  and  the 
groundwork  for  all  succeeding  monastic  orders. 

Ideals. — All  the  aspirations  of  monasticism,  revived 
remnants  of  Oriental  quietism  and  Greek  philosophies, 
as  they  would  appear  to  be — revived  by  new  concepts 
derived  from  scriptural  interpretations — are  sharply 
summed  up  into  three  vows  which  the  monks  were  re- 
quired to  take;  namely,  those  of  poverty,  chastity, 
and  obedience.  The  great  problem  of  reconciling  the 
claims  of  the  individual  with  those  of  the  social  whole, 
so  conspicuous  and  pressing  both  in  Oriental  and 
Graeco-Roman  life,  are  evidently  all  merged  into  the 
superior  claims  of  God  on  the  soul  and  the  supreme 
need  of  the  soul  to  be  at  peace  with  God — a  mental 
attitude  which  certain  injunctions  of  the  Great  Teacher 
himself  seemed  to  justify.  In  the  first  vow,  accord- 
ingly, the  monk  renounced  all  such  material  interests 
as  might  hamper  the  soul  in  her  progress  toward  Chris- 
tian holiness;  in  the  second,  all  those  intimate  social 
relations  of  marriage  and  family  life  which  tend  to 
rob  God  in  Christ  of  any  love;  and  in  the  third,  all 
those  relations  of  citizenship  which  hamper  the  church 
in  her  world-wide  mission  of  salvation.  It  will  be 
recognized  at  once  that  these  ideals,  antisocial  as  they 
are  in  outward  aspect,  are  really  a  great  guarantee 
that  the  church  shall  not  lack  workers  and  teachers 
and  preachers  and  missionaries.  In  his  forty-eighth 
article  St.  Benedict  orders  that  at  least  seven  hours  of 
each  day  be  devoted  to  manual  labor,  and  at  least 


CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION  127 

two  hours  to  sacred  reading.  While  the  requirement 
of  manual  labor  furnished  the  ignorant  population  of 
Europe  with  expert  agriculturists  and  craftsmen,  the 
requirement  of  sacred  reading  made  the  monasteries 
not  only  the  publishing-house  and  library  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  but  also  the  centre  of  literary  activity  and  the 
great  "ready-to-hand"  educational  agency  of  the 
church. 

The  Monastic  Schools. — It  is,  however,  with  the 
distinctly  educational  results  that  we  must  here  be 
concerned  first  of  all.  If  those  who  joined  the  order 
were  to  read  the  Holy  Scriptures,  the  Church  Fathers, 
and  the  church  missal,  they  must,  of  course,  be  taught 
reading,  and,  in  the  absence  of  printed  books,  writing 
must  be  taught  so  that  the  monks  might  take  part  in 
the  copying  of  manuscripts.  "Singing"  was  taught 
for  the  sake  of  religious  services,  and  "reckoning"  to 
calculate  the  church  days. 

The  Seven  Liberal  Arts. — In  time  the  rudiments  of 
"the  seven  liberal  arts"  of  the  Greeks,  i.  e.,  grammar, 
rhetoric,  dialectic  (logic),  and  arithmetic,  geometry, 
astronomy,  and  music — later  divided  into  the  "triv- 
ium"  and  the  "quadrivium" — became  the  regular 
curriculum.  The  names  do  not  express  the  content  of 
the  several  subjects,  each  one  growing  gradually  from 
rudiments  to  a  body  of  well-organized  knowledge. 
Grammar  included  not  only  reading  and  writing,  but 
literature,  sometimes  extended  in  the  better  schools, 
even  to  Vergil  and  other  pagan  authors.  Rhetoric  in 
time  came  to  include  history  and  law.  Dialectic  (logic) 
grew  from  simple  Aristotelian  statements  into  scien- 
tific reasoning  and  metaphysics.  Arithmetic,  until 
the  Arabic  notation  became  available,  amounted  to 


128  HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION 

little  more  than  simple  calculations,  but  later  grew 
to  larger  proportions.  Geometry,  based  on  Euclid, 
came  to  include  geography  and  surveying.  Astron- 
omy developed  from  the  rudiments  to  a  systematized 
body  of  doctrine,  and  presently  added  physics.  Music 
rose  from  simple  psalmody  into  organized  theory,  the 
celebrated  Boethius  becoming  the  recognized  authority. 

At  first,  of  course,  only  the  rudiments  of  each  of  the 
seven  arts — called  "liberal"  because  they  were  sup- 
posed to  cover  the  whole  range  of  possible  subjects — 
were  studied,  and  the  importance  of  each  art  depended 
upon  the  needs  of  the  times,  grammar  and  rhetoric 
leading,  as  long  as  a  knowledge  of  Latin  was  most  es- 
sential, that  is,  the  first  half  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
When  the  influence  of  Saracenic  learning,  spreading 
from  Spain,  began  to  be  felt  in  the  monasteries,  arith- 
metic, geometry,  and  astronomy  grew  in  importance. 
The  whole  curriculum  was  always  only  a  handmaid  to 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  tolerated  only  as  a 
means  to  this  end.  The  course  was  preparatory  to  the 
more  serious  study  of  theology  in  the  cathedral  schools. 

Methods. — At  first  only  youths  whose  object  it  was 
to  join  the  order  were  received  as  students.  Later  this 
restriction  was  not  so  interpreted  as  to  exclude  other 
youths.  The  Franciscan  convents  began  to  provide 
at  least  an  elementary  education  for  girls.  Although 
seven  or  eight  was  the  age  of  admission,  membership 
in  the  order  was  not  permitted  before  eighteen.  Latin, 
rather  than  the  mother  tongue,  continued  to  be  the 
language  of  the  schools.  The  catechetical  method  of 
instruction  was  extensively  employed,  and  the  prac- 
tical difficulty  of  supplying  the  pupils  with  enough 
manuscripts,  made  dictation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 


CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION  129 

and  copying  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  the  laborious 
necessity.  Memorizing,  rather  than  reasoning,  was 
prevalent.  We  are  not  surprised,  therefore,  that  the 
discipline  was  rather  severe,  extending  even  to  the  use 
of  the  rod. 

Parish  Schools. — Under  monasticism  catechumenal 
education,  as  a  preparation  for  church  membership, 
became  the  function  of  the  parish  priests  connected 
with  the  cathedral  diocese,  and  of  the  bishops'  clerks. 
Reading,  writing,  and  singing  were  taught  in  connec- 
tion with  the  catechism,  as  before.  In  other  words, 
monasticism  failed  to  provide  in  any  special  way  for 
primary  church  education. 

Cathedral  Schools. — Under  monasticism  formal  edu- 
cation for  the  priesthood  gradually  passed  out  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  cathedral  bishop,  and  became  the 
function  of  the  monks.  The  divorce  of  theology  from 
philosophy,  which,  in  the  West,  "otherworldliness" 
had  made  almost  complete  in  the  sixth  century,  ex- 
cept in  the  Irish  monastery  of  lona,  and  some  other 
important  places,  like  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland  and  York 
in  England,  remained  an  institutional  fact,  and  the 
course  amounted  to  little  more  than  an  advanced 
monastic  course.  However,  in  St.  Gall  and  York  phi- 
losophy continued  to  flourish,  together  with  Greek, 
long  after  the  separation  from  Rome. 

Estimate.— That  monasticism  never  recognized  the 
cause  of  popular  education;  that  it  kept  catechu- 
menal education  at  a  low  level;  that,  by  extreme 
subordination  of  reason  to  faith,  it  degenerated  rather 
than  promoted  theological  training — all  these  defects, 
and  others,  must  be  regretfully  admitted. 

On  the  other  hand,  monasticism  as  an  educational 


130  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

agency,  contributed  powerfully  to  the  Crusades,  or 
Holy  Wars;  by  gradual  reversion  from  extreme  "other- 
worldliness"  to  classic  learning  and  philosophy,  from 
both  of  which  it  had  parted  only  under  compulsion, 
it  paved  the  way  for  scholasticism — and  through  both 
of  these  results,  for  the  coming  of  the  mediaeval  uni- 
versities. 

CHARLEMAGNE 

It  is  practically  the  unanimous  opinion  of  biog- 
raphers* that  Charlemagne  (Karl  the  Great)  was 
great  with  an  all-round  greatness  that  could  not  be 
fairly  predicated  of  any  other  great  man  in  history. 

Ambition. — Charlemagne  was  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  742  A.  D.,  and  died  there  in  814.  He  inherited  the 
throne  of  his  father,  Pepin  the  Short,  and  his  grand- 
father, Charles  Martel;  but  the  troublous  age  of  which 
he  was  the  product,  unhappily  failed  to  supply  him 
with  the  education  for  which  his  capabilities  fitted 
him,  and  this  probably  accounts  for  the  lifelong  efforts 
which  he  made  to  supplement  his  deficiencies.  It  be- 
came his  mission  to  conquer  the  greater  portion  of 
western  Europe  to  save  the  Christian  civilization 
which  his  ancestors  had  founded  in  Frankland.  In 
800,  it  will  be  remembered,  Pope  Leo  III  gave  him 
the  golden  crown  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  thus 
adding  the  tremendous  power  of  the  church  to  his  own 
ambition.  His  ambition  to  conquer,  unlike  that  of 
Alexander  the  Great  before  him,  and  of  Napoleon  after 
him,  was  not  an  end  but  only  a  means.  His  supreme 
ambition — his  inspired  dream,  if  we  might  call  it  that 
— was  not  political  conquest,  but  the  welding  of  a 
*  Lord's  ".Middle  Ages." 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  131 

great  Christian  empire  out  of  the  unformed  Teutonic 
barbarians  who  surrounded  Frankland,  and  continued 
to  threaten  its  safety  until  he  at  length  could  make 
himself  their  acknowledged  m.aster.*  His  astonishing 
wisdom,  when  we  consider  the  times  in  which  he  lived, 
is  evident  in  his  selection  of  means  to  ends.  He  real- 
ized that  the  unity  at  which  he  aimed  must  needs  be 
spiritual  rather  than  outwardly  forcible,  and  therefore 
based  on  unity  of  language,  religion,  and  culture. 
And  it  was  this  unwavering  attitude  that  made  Charle- 
magne a  great  educator,  as  well  as  a  great  sovereign. 

Educational  Activities.— Charlemagne  promoted  edu- 
cation in  three  ways;  namely,  through  his  palace 
school,  his  capitularies,  or  decrees,  and  his  ''missi 
dominici,"  or  official  messengers. 

Palace  School. — With  the  remnants  of  the  palace 
schools,  which  it  appears  his  "fathers"  had  maintained, 
to  work  upon  as  a  foundation,!  Charlemagne  proceeded 
to  establish  an  ideal  court  academy  which  should  serve 
as  a  model  and  at  the  same  time  supply  the  necessary 
teaching  forces  for  his  kingdom.  He  accordingly  sum- 
moned to  his  side  the  learned  men  of  his  times,  begin- 
ning with  his  father's  educational  adviser,  Peter  of 
Pisa,  and  through  him,  Paul  the  Deacon,  both  of  them 
prominent  scholars  of  Lombardy.  In  782  he  called 
to  his  court  the  learned  Anglo-Saxon  scholar,  Alcuin, 
the  head  of  the  famous  cathedral  school  at  York  in 
England.  This  man,  a  httle  older  than  Charlemagne 
himself,  and  a  conspicuous  champion  of  St.  Augus- 
tine's views,  was  to  be  his  chief  minister  of  education. 
He  brought  three  teachers  with  him  to  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

*  Davidson's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  155. 
f  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  II. 


132  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Charlemagne  himself  was  a  pupil  of  Alculn,  and  so 
were  his  queen,  his  three  sons  and  two  daughters,  his 
sister,  his  son-in-law,  and  three  cousins.  Prominent 
ecclesiastics  and  scholars,  including  his  biographer 
Einhard,  also  belonged  to  the  school. 

With  the  younger  learners  Alcuin  used  the  catecheti- 
cal method  of  instruction,  but  for  older  minds  a  more 
discursive  method.  Among  the  subjects  taught  were 
reading,  writing,  and  singing,  together  with  the  Holy- 
Scriptures,  the  seven  liberal  arts,  Latin,  and  a  little 
Greek.  Charlemagne  himself  acquired  the  power  to 
converse  fluently  in  Latin,  and  knew  a  little  Greek. 
His  pathetic  effort  to  write  a  good  hand  is  well  known 
to  our  readers.  He  favored  the  education  of  girls, 
and  took  special  pride  in  the  training  of  his  own  daugh- 
ters. The  fact  that  the  school  "moved"  with  the 
king  in  his  "circuits"  must  have  caused  embarrassing 
interruptions,  but  the  encouragement  which  Charle- 
magne gave  to  education  by  making  all  sorts  of  courtly 
favors  and  promotions  depend  upon  application  on 
the  part  of  pupils,  and  upon  efficiency  in  their  attain- 
ments, is  praiseworthy  to  a  very  high  degree. 

Capitularies. — In  787  Charlemagne  issued  an  edu- 
cational capitulary  to  the  abbots  of  all  the  monasteries, 
of  which  the  copy  sent  to  the  famous  one  at  Fulda, 
in  east  Frankland,  or  northern  Germany,  has  come 
down  to  us.  In  this  capitulary  he  reproved  the  monks 
for  their  illiteracy  and  urged  them  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  letters  and  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Two 
years  later,  in  a  still  more  urgent  capitulary  addressed 
to  the  abbots  and  bishops,  he  outlined  a  definite  cur- 
riculum for  the  monastic  and  cathedral  schools,  not 
forgetting  even  the  parish  schools,  and  specifying  the 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  133 

kind  of  teaching  on  which  he  would  insist.  Much  as 
he  revered  the  church,  as  we  see  in  all  his  relations  with 
the  pope,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  make  the  monks  obey 
orders,  and,  in  addition  to  the  request  that  the  priests 
preach  oftener  in  the  language  of  the  people,  he  re- 
quired them  to  give  a  good  deal  of  time  to  teaching. 

Official  Messengers. — Charlemagne  recognized  that 
unless  decrees  are  enforced  they  may  not  bring  results, 
and  so  he  appointed  messengers  (missi  dominici),  who 
should  visit,  observe,  and  report  to  him,  not  only  what 
they  found  in  the  frontier  governments  which  he  had 
established,  but  especially  also  in  the  schools.  There 
is  evidence  enough  that  he  carried  out  these  plans,  for 
there  was  an  immediate  and  decided  quickening  in  all 
the  existing  educational  institutions  and  an  effective 
addition  of  new  facilities. 

Influence. — Charlemagne's  spiritual  successors  in  the 
educational  reforms  which  he  undertook  carried  out 
his  noble  ambitions,  even  after  his  death,  and,  in  some 
respects,  surpassed  all  his  dreams. 

Alcuin. — In  796  Charlemagne  permitted  Alcuin  to 
withdraw  from  the  active  headship  of  the  palace  school 
and  to  become  the  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
Martin  at  Tours,  the  oldest  and  wealthiest  in  Frank- 
land.  Here  he  established  a  model  monastic  school, 
wrote  books,  and  produced  disciples  who  attained  to 
prominent  places  everywhere  in  Europe.  One  of 
these  was  Rabanus  Maurus  (776-856),  the  progressive 
and  successful  head  of  the  monastic  school  at  Fulda. 
Probably  the  greatest  successor  of  Alcuin  was  Johannes 
Scotus  Erigena  (810-876),  the  Irish  scholar,  who  as 
head  of  the  Prankish  palace  school  became  the  fore- 
runner of  scholasticism. 


134  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Among  the  far-reaching  results  of  Charlemagne's 
reforms,  in  spite  of  the  political  chaos  that  followed 
his  death,  was  the  work  which  Alfred  the  Great  (871- 
901)  undertook  to  do  in  England,  where  his  translations 
of  the  classics  and  his  ardent  imitation  of  Charlemagne's 
educational  establishments  promoted  Christian  civili- 
zation and  political  efficiency  to  a  wonderful  degree. 

THE   SARACENS 

It  was  through  the  Saracens,  the  Arabian  followers 
of  Mohammed,  as  well  as  through  the  educational  suc- 
cessors of  Charlemagne,  that  Graeco-Roman  culture, 
ostracized  from  western  Europe,  again  became  affili- 
ated with  Christianity. 

Mohammed's  "Crescent."— In  570  A.  D.  there  was 
born  at  Mecca  an  Arab  who,  through  the  impulse 
which  he  imparted  to  his  followers,  threatened  for 
nearly  a  thousand  years  to  submerge  Christianity. 
This  unique  man  was  Mohammed.  Given  by  nature 
to  contemplation,  he  had,  as  a  young  man,  travelling 
in  Arabia  and  Syria,  become  profoundly  affected  by 
Jewish  and  Christian  ideas,  commingled  with  a  vast 
mass  of  nondescript  accretions.  He  had  noticed  * 
the  power  of  the  "book"  among  these  people,  and 
became  deeply  convinced  that  what  his  own  war- 
racked  country  needed  most  for  its  peace  was  the  uni- 
fying power  of  a  lord  and  a  book.  And  to  this  task 
this  strange  man,  now  forty  years  old,  and  unable  to 
read  or  write,  as  his  biographers  believe,  but  urged  by 
inner  persuasion,  set  himself.  The  result  was  the 
Koran,  an  astonishing  mixture  of  Jewish,  Christian, 
and    Arabian    elements,    with    the    Jewish    elements 

*  Davidson,  p.  135. 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  135 

greatly  predominating.  The  book  did  not  take  full 
form  until  some  time  after  his  death.  From  his  exile 
and  flight  to  Medina  in  622 — the  "hegira"  as  it  is 
known — he  returned,  and  before  he  died,  in  632,  he 
had  induced  all  Arabia,  by  force  of  arms,  to  accept  the 
Koran.  His  successors,  the  "caliphs,"  made  them- 
selves master  of  Persia,  India,  and  Syria,  and  then,  in 
their  effort  to  carry  this  same  Koran  into  Europe, 
which  they  approached  from  the  side  of  Constanti- 
nople and  northern  Africa,  they  produced  the  "cres- 
cent empire,"  with  its  eastern  horn  at  Constantinople 
and  the  western  at  Tours,  France,  where  Charles  Mar- 
tel  stopped  their  further  progress,  732  A.  D. 

Educational  Activities  of  the  Saracens. — As  long  as 
the  Koran,  in  the  course  of  its  conquest,  came  in  con- 
tact only  with  the  unreflecting,  unphilosophic  Arabs, 
"it  needed  no  support  from  learning  and  called  for 
no  special  education."  Its  contents  could  be  communi- 
cated by  word  of  mouth  and  committed  to  memory; 
but  when  it  reached  Syria,  Persia,  India,  and  Egypt, 
it  faced  a  new  problem.  In  Syria,  for  example,  Hellen- 
ized  by  catechetical  schools  like  that  of  Alexandria, 
and  others  founded  at  Nisibis,  Antioch,  and  elsewhere, 
the  Koran  found  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  win  con- 
verts; and  this  difficulty  was  so  enlarged  by  the  Nes- 
torians  who,  expelled  from  the  Roman  church  by  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  (431  A.  D.)  on  account  of  Ari- 
anism,  had  also  sought  new  fields  of  labor  in  Syria,  that 
it  became  absolutely  necessary  for  the  Koran  to  garb 
itself  in  Hellenism  in  order  to  win  the  Eastern  world 
extensively.     The  educational  results  were  marvellous. 

In  Arabia. — Through  the  impulse  of  Hellenism  thus 
allied  with  Mohammedanism,  Greek  science,  medicine, 


136  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  philosophy  were  given  to  the  crescent  empire 
first  in  Syriac  and  then  in  the  Arab  language.  The 
most  celebrated  Arab  writer  on  mathematics,  medi- 
cine, and  philosophy  was  Avicenna  (980-1037).  From 
the  Hindus — not  only  from  the  Syrians — the  Arabs 
learned  not  only  a  system  of  notation,  but  also  higher 
mathematics,  astronomy,  etc.  Schools  and  libraries 
sprang  up  in  large  cities,  and  literature  flourished. 
While  Europe,  except  on  the  east  and  among  the  Irish, 
lay  in  darkness,  the  "crescent"  lay  in  light.  In  the 
days  of  Haroun  al  Raschid,  a  contemporary  and  corre- 
spondent of  Charlemagne,  Bagdad  and  other  Arabian 
cities — if  we  may  trust  such  a  book  as  the  "Arabian 
Nights"  as  a  true  reflection — must  have  fairly  revelled 
in  physical  and  mental  glory. 

In  Spain. — The  orthodox  Arabs,  however,  had  little 
patience  with  this  Hellenization  of  Mohammedanism, 
and  its  uncomfortable  devotees  betook  themselves 
(1050  A.  D.)  to  Spain,  where  they  became  known  as 
"Moors,"  and  by  the  twelfth  century  produced  a 
brilliant  revival  of  learning  in  such  cities  as  Cordova, 
Toledo,  Granada,  and  Salamanca,  In  these  institu- 
tions were  taught  mathematics,  science,  law,  philosophy, 
and  letters.  Among  the  famous  Moorish  thinkers 
was  Averroes  (11 26-1 198),  the  greatest  commentator 
of  Aristotle  that  appeared  from  the  fall  of  Rome  to 
the  Renaissance.  His  commentaries,  translated  into 
Latin,  became  a  special  authority  among  schoolmen, 
and  helped  to  shape  such  distinguished  scholars  as 
Albertus  Magnus  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  In  other 
words,  Aristotelian  Hellenism,  as  already  noted,  put 
Christian  orthodoxy  in  Europe  on  the  defensive,  and 
thus  transformed  Roman  theology  into  "scholasticism." 


CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION  137 

SCHOLASTICISM 

The  new  impulse  which  Charlemagne  had  given  to 
education  was  supplemented  from  the  ninth  to  the 
fourteenth  century  by  a  revolt  of  reason  from  authority 
in  reHgion,  and  this  revolt  has  been  called  "scholas- 
ticism" from  the  Latin  word  "scholasticus,"  or  school- 
man, thus  calling  attention  to  its  origin  in  the  mo- 
nastic and  cathedral  schools. 

Origin. — At  least  three  influences  contributed  to 
the  rise  of  mediaeval  scholasticism,  namely,  Moham- 
medanism, recovery  from  "adventism,"  and  the 
Crusades. 

^ISistory. — When,  in  the  eighth  century,  Mohamme- 
danism came  into  Spain  to  stay,  Christendom  soon 
began  to  find  it  necessary  to  defend  such  doctrines  as 
the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation.  This  awakening, 
having  for  its  purpose  the  vanquishing  of  heresy,  led 
to  a  systematic  restatement  of  the  fundamentals  of  the- 
ology, and,  through  such  scholars  as  Johannes  Scotus 
Erigena,  ushered  in  the  great  demands  of  reason  on 
faith,  especially  the  Augustinian  type  of  faith,  based 
so  absolutely  on  authority.  But  monasticism,  for- 
tressed  in  the  otherworldliness  of  early  adventism,  sur- 
rendered to  reason  only  by  degrees,  and  with  stubborn 
unwillingness. 

It  was  only  when  Europe  began  to  recover  from  the 
chronic  panic  of  adventism,  and  from  the  unsettling 
fear  of  invasion  by  the  Norsemen,  that,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twelfth  century,  learning  once  more 
dared  to  return  somewhat  unhampered  to  "man  and 
nature,"  and  thus  to  the  claims  of  reason  in  religion. 
Nevertheless,  it  continued  to  be  the  aim  of  the  earher 


138  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

schoolmen,  as  with  Anselm  (i 033-1 109),  of  the  Can- 
terbury Cathedra],  to  show  that  the  accepted  doctrines 
of  Christianity  were  really  consistent  with  each  other 
and  in  harmony  with  reason.  Anselm  held  that  faith 
must  precede  reason,  and  that  when  reason  cannot 
measure  the  heights  and  depths  of  revelation  it  must 
desist  from  efTort.  Abelard  (1079-1142),  the  brilHant 
Frenchman,  whose  romance  with  Heloise  lends  ever- 
lasting charm  to  his  name,  and  the  fame  of  whose  lec- 
tures have  never  ceased  to  attract  the  learned  world, 
"declared  that  the  only  justification  of  a  doctrine  is 
its  reasonableness,  and  that  reason  must  precede 
faith." 

Due  to  more  intimate  contact  of  the  schoolmen  with 
Saracenic,  or  Moorish,  Hellenism  in  Spain,  and  es- 
pecially to  the  recovery  of  the  original  works  of  Aris- 
totle by  Venetian  crusaders  who  captured  Constanti- 
nople, the  conflict  between  the  two  views  reached  its 
greatest  height  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
through  such  past  masters  in  thinking  as  Thomas 
Aquinas  (1225-1274),  Duns  Scotus  (1274-1308),  and 
William  of  Occam  (1280-1347).  In  these  contentions 
orthodoxy  at  first  repudiated  Aristotle  and  his  works, 
but,  finding  it  impossible  to  overcome  the  Greek  mas- 
ter, adopted  him  bodily,  and  thus  gave  final  shape  to 
scholasticism,  or  logical  theology.  Thomas  Aquinas, 
the  "angelic  doctor,"  an  Italian  theologian  of  the 
Dominican  order,  whose  followers  were  called  "Thom- 
ists,"  exalted  reason  in  religion,  and  gave  to  the  Roman 
church  a  system  of  theology  which  still  continues  in 
authority.  Duns  Scotus,  a  Scotch  Franciscan,  sur- 
named  the  "subtle  doctor,"  exalted  the  will,  and  thus 
reduced  theology  to  its  practical  implications.     William 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  139 

of  Occam,  an  English  philosopher,  surnamed  the  "in- 
vincible doctor,"  went  a  step  farther  by  asserting  that 
theological  doctrines  were,  strictly  speaking,  not  mat- 
ters of  reason,  but  of  revelation  and  faith.  This  posi- 
tion, emancipating  theology  from  philosophy,  began 
to  be  accepted  more  and  more,  and  thus  virtually  de- 
stroyed scholasticism. 

Method. — In  the  history  of  education  we  are  prob- 
ably more  interested  in  the  method  of  scholasticism 
than  in  its  mental  attitudes  toward  Christianity.  As 
a  method  scholasticism  was  a  logical  study  of  theology, 
and  Aristotle's  method  of  analytic  deduction  the  form 
to  which  all  statements  and  arguments  had  to  be  re- 
duced. It  was  the  debates  to  which  such  a  process 
gave  rise  in  the  cathedral  schools,  and  later,  in  the 
universities,  that  divided  the  schoolmen  into  the 
"Thomists"  and  "Scotists,"  and  that  gave  the  whole 
intellectual  world  such  a  reviving  impetus. 

Influence. — The  first  effects  of  this  debating  system, 
in  its  exaltation  of  logic,  had  the  tendency  of  reducing 
the  orthodox  curriculum  of  the  monastic  and  cathedral 
schools  to  dry  formulas,  from  which,  however,  the  uni- 
versities recovered  after  the  Crusades.  And  it  is  cer- 
tainly true  that  the  dogmatism  and  subtleties  and  ab- 
stract intricacies  in  which  the  schoolmen  indulged 
was  not  a  preparation  for  life  and  religion.  Never- 
theless, as  a  little  reflection  will  show,  even  such  an 
argument  as  that  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  about  the  num- 
ber of  angels  that  can  stand  on  the  point  of  a  needle, 
shows  that  at  heart  the  great  purpose  of  all  such  in- 
tellectual fencing  was  ''to  present  the  nature  of  the 
infinite  in  concrete  form."  All  in  all,  scholasticism 
served  the  world  best  by  its  dissolution,  thus  granting 


140  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

to  theology  and  philosophy  spheres  of  their  own,  with- 
out denying  the  function  of  either,  while  the  direct  and 
more  immediate  results  were  its  contributions  to  the 
universities  and  to  the  Renaissance  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

FEUDALISM 

The  adverse  effects  of  feudalism  on  education  during 
the  darkness  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  of  which  dark- 
ness indeed  it  was  a  potent  cause,  and  the  "new  day" 
which,  allied  with  the  church,  feudalism  helped  to 
produce  through  the  Crusades,  makes  at  least  a  brief 
explanation  of  its  origin  and  course  of  development 
necessary  in  the  history  of  education. 

Origin. — While  the  Teuton  warriors  who  conquered 
Rome  were  individually  proud  and  independent,  they 
were  also  loyal  to  their  chieftains.  These  were  the  con- 
spicuous traits  of  native  Teuton  character.  The  rela- 
tion to  which  attention  has  just  been  called  is  seen  to 
great  advantage  in  the  division  which  these  chieftains 
made  of  conquered  Europe  among  their  loyal  retain- 
ers; for,  while  the  chieftain  thus  surrendered  parts  of 
his  domains,  he  could  in  turn  depend  upon  the  holders 
in  his  wars.  In  the  course  of  centuries  these  social 
relations  included  even  persons  and  institutions  whose 
tenure  of  land  did  not  depend  directly  upon  service, 
but  who,  to  secure  protection  needed  in  the  many  wars 
between  the  castled  chieftains,  attached  themselves 
voluntarily  to  some  powerful  lord,  and  then  it  became 
necessary  to  define  with  severe  nicety  the  intricate 
multitude  of  higher  and  lower  relations.  Thus  arose 
and  grew  the  feudal  system  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

It  was  the  complication  of  wars  and  the  coincident 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  141 

building  of  castle  fortresses  that  succeeded  the  im- 
mediate break-up  of  Charlemagne's  empire,  through 
the  treaty  of  Verdun,  in  843,  and  the  subsequent  divi- 
sion of  Europe  into  feudal  estates,  that  shattered  the 
educational  dream  of  Charlemagne,  and  that  sub- 
merged all  educational  interests  more  or  less  up  to  the 
time  of  the  Crusades. 

The  feudal  lords  generally  recognized  the  popes  as 
spiritual  overlords,  and  the  chapels  which  these  lords 
built  in  close  connection  with  the  castles  became  in 
time  the  great  cathedrals. 

The  esteem  in  which  the  Teutons  held  woman,  and 
for  which  Tacitus  praised  them  to  shame  the  Romans, 
became  the  ready  ally  of  rehgious  veneration,  and  thus 
in  time  the  higher  aspirations  of  feudalism  were  gath- 
ered up  in  three  ideals,  namely,  "rehgion,  honor,  and 
gallantry." 

Chivalry. — This  Teutonic  idealism  passed  through 
two  stages,  which  have  been  called  the  "heroic  age" 
and  the  "age  of  courtesy."  In  the  former  stage  re- 
ligion was  the  dominant  note;  in  the  latter,  gallantry. 
The  refinements  of  feudalism  of  this  second  period 
have  been  distinguished  from  the  earher  coarseness  by 
the  term  "chivalry,"  an  abstract  name  derived  from 
the  French  word  "cheval,"  meaning  horse,  because 
the  lords  fought  on  horseback.  Probably  the  close 
aUiance  of  the  church  and  the  lords  in  the  joint  under- 
taking of  the  Crusades,  or  Holy  Wars,  was  the  cause 
of  transition  from  the  former  to  the  latter  stage  of 
feudalism. 

The  Crusades. — It  was,  of  course,  the  first  of  the 
three  ideals,  namely,  the  religious  impulse,  that  pro- 
duced   the    Crusades.     When    the    Turks,    who    had 


142  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

wrested  captured  Jerusalem  from  the  Arabs,  insulted 
European  pilgrims  who,  for  reasons  of  piety,  or  pen- 
ance, came  to  visit  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  bitter  resent- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  church  allied  itself  with  the 
dramatic  opportunity  for  penance  on  the  part  of  the 
lord  and  people  aUke,  and  thus  in  1096  began  the  fate- 
ful expeditions — seven  or  eight  of  them — ^which  were 
destined  to  cover  Europe  with  sorrow  and  shame  for 
several  centuries,  but  which  contributed  to  education 
in  at  least  three  ways:  first,  by  adjusting  palace  schools 
to  the  quickened  ideals  of  feudalism,  or  chivalry; 
second,  by  producing  commerce,  and  thus  the  burgher 
schools,  and  third,  by  promoting  scholasticism  and 
Saracenic  learning,  and  thus  the  universities. 

THE   KNIGHT   SCHOOLS 

The  emphasis  into  which  the  Crusades  quickened  all 
the  ideals  of  feudalism,  as  already  noted,  produced  the 
knight  schools.  The  palace  schools,  with  their  crudely 
organized  courses,  became  the  simple  model  upon  the 
basis  of  which  education  was  adjusted  to  the  special 
needs  of  the  times.  Thus  arose  three  well-defined 
periods  in  the  education  of  a  knight,  namely,  the 
home  period,  the  "early  teens,"  and  the  ''later  teens." 

Home.— Up  to  the  age  of  seven  the  boy  remained 
at  home,  and  his  health,  religion,  and  morals  were 
carefully  supervised  by  his  natural  guardians.  Among 
the  virtues  specially  cultivated  were  obedience,  re- 
spect to  superiors,  and  common  courtesy. 

A  Page  at  the  Castle. — At  the  age  of  seven  every 
boy  for  whom  chivalry  made  any  provision  was  sent 
to  the  castle  of  some  lord,  usually  the  father's  overlord, 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  143 

to  complete  his  education.  Here  he  became  a  "page" 
to  the  lady  of  the  castle,  whom  he  served  for  seven 
years  in  various  ways,  and  under  whose  special  super- 
vision he  learned  reading,  writing,  singing,  dancing, 
and  courtesy,  and  also  how  to  write  verses,  play  the 
pipe,  play  chess,  etc.  In  his  outdoor  life  he  learned 
to  box,  wrestle,  ride,  swim,  etc.;  and,  as  a  page,  accom- 
panied the  ladies  when  hunting  or  hawking.  In  short, 
while  rehgion,  honor,  and  gallantry  were  thus  taught 
in  the  rudiments,  gallantry  was  emphasized. 

As  a  Squire. — At  the  age  of  fourteen  the  page  be- 
came a  "squire."  Henceforth  he  was  still  the  lady's 
attendant,  and  continued  to  hunt,  sing,  play  chess  and 
the  harp  with  her,  but  allegiance  to  his  lord  rose  to 
greater  emphasis.  It  became  his  duty  to  wait  upon 
his  lord  at  the  table,  to  look  after  his  armor,  to  attend 
him  in  the  "tournaments,"  and  in  actual  battle,  or  on 
the  hunt;  and,  in  the  performance  of  these  duties, 
he  gradually  mastered  the  art  of  war,  especially  how 
to  ride,  and  fight  in  full  armor  with  sword,  spear,  and 
battle-axe.  Thus,  while  religion  and  gallantry  were 
not  sacrificed  in  this  period,  "honor"  and  its  claims 
had  to  be  emphasized. 

Knighthood.— At  the  age  of  twenty-one,  unless  lack 
of  property  prevented,  the  goal  of  knighthood  was  at- 
tained. After  weeks  of  rehgious  preparations,  ending 
with  a  night  of  soUtary  waiting  in  the  church,  and  the 
partaking  of  the  holy  sacrament  at  the  altar  in  the 
morning,  the  young  man  received  a  priest's  blessing. 
Then,  taking  the  oath  to  defend  the  church,  to  respect 
the  priesthood,  to  attack  the  wicked,  to  protect  women 
and  the  poor,  to  preserve  the  country  in  tranquillity, 
and  to  shed  his  blood  in  behalf  of  his  brethren,  he 


144  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

was  knighted,  and  rode  forth  into  the  world  to  prove 
his  worth. 

Women. — Chivalry,  contrary  to  the  ideals  of  mo- 
nasticism,  exalted  woman.  Her  education,  except  in 
physical  and  military  aspects,  resembled  that  of  her 
brothers.  Usually,  to  a  knowledge  of  household  duties, 
and  the  ordinary  course  in  reading,  writing,  singing, 
and  dancing,  was  added  some  training  in  sewing,  weav- 
ing, embroidery,  and  occasionally  Latin  and  "letters." 

Influence. — Chivalry  had  little  use  for  monkish  aus- 
terity, and  often  failed  in  its  ideals  of  honor  and  gal- 
lantry. Nevertheless,  it  was  a  real  protest  of  right 
against  might,  it  emphasized  the  sacredness  of  the 
oath,  and  paved  the  way  for  modern  chivalry,  or  polite- 
ness. It  called  attention  to  the  present  life,  which 
had  suffered  so  much  from  the  otherworldliness  of 
monk  and  nun. 

In  the  ballads  and  lyrics  that  were  sung,  and  the 
tales  that  were  told,  during  the  long  winter  nights  in 
the  castle  hall,  we  have  the  rise  of  modern  literature, 
for  the  "troubadours"  of  France  and  the  "minnesing- 
ers" of  Germany  were  devoted  to  the  mother  tongue. 

Then,  too,  the  ideals  of  obedience  and  service  modi- 
fied the  extreme  individualism  of  the  Teuton,  which, 
as  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  adjusting  the  claims  of 
the  individual  to  the  social  whole,  was  as  necessary  as 
the  modification  of  excessive  state  control  among  the 
ancients.* 

THE   BURGHER   SCHOOLS 

Inasmuch  as  the  church  continued  to  purchase  a 
variety  of  utilities,   and  the  nobles  such  luxuries  as 

*  Myers'  "General  History,"  p.  428. 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  145 

pleased  their  love  of  barbaric  splendor,  commerce  was 
never  all  driven  from  western  Europe,  but  the  towns 
and  cities  which  the  Romans  had  left  in  their  wake, 
except  those  of  France  and  Italy,  had  been  practically- 
all  swept  away  by  the  Teutonic  occupation  of  Roman 
Europe.  In  their  place  had  sprung  up  the  settlements 
of  the  feudal  lords  and  their  retainers,  isolated  com- 
munities whose  centre  was  the  castle  and  round  about 
which  grew  up  a  village  and  people  supplying  the  sim- 
ple needs  of  life  by  their  own  energies  and  holding  aloof 
from  the  rest  of  the  world.  This  remained  the  condi- 
tion of  things  up  to  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  and  far 
within  the  twelfth  century. 

The  Crusades  Revived  Commerce. — The  Italian 
cities,  notably  Venice  and  Genoa,  were  called  upon  to 
furnish  the  ships  and  transports  to  convey  Crusaders, 
thus  estabhshing  routes  of  connection  between  the 
East  and  Europe,  and  revealing  to  Europe  the  wealth 
and  luxury  of  the  East.  Trade  sprang  up  inevitably, 
for  the  West  found  it  necessary  to  produce  what  the 
East  would  accept  in  exchange.  And  presently  the 
West  began  to  manufacture  at  least  some  of  the  articles 
of  luxury  until  then  imported  from  the  East.  This  in 
turn  produced  an  exchange  of  articles  all  over  Europe, 
and  then  the  media  of  exchange,  together  with  credits. 

Growth  of  Cities. — As  a  result  new  towns  and  cities 
began  to  spring  up  all  over  Europe,  centres  of  indus- 
tries and  commerce,  and  many  of  them  became  im- 
mensely rich.  The  serfs,  in  their  turn,  soon  discovered 
that  the  lords  needed  money,  and  that  in  lieu  of  it 
they  could  escape  the  more  direct  service  to  which 
they  had  been  bound  by  the  feudal  system  in  its 
earher   development.     Serfdom   thus   gave  way   to   a 


146  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

large  "burgher"  class — a  city  folk  with  whom  the 
lords  found  it  necessary  to  treat  for  favor,  by  granting 
the  cities  charters  of  self-government,  together  with 
rich  concessions  to  the  merchant  class  and  the  various 
crafts. 

Educational  Results. — The  time  thus  came,  before 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the  cities  could 
vie  with  the  church,  not  only  in  comfort  and  luxury, 
but  also  in  the  educational  facilities  which  they  offered 
as  a  necessary  preparation  for  the  city  Hfe.  Apart 
from  several  nondescript  efforts  and  the  wandering 
adventurers  who  went  about  from  town  to  town  ad- 
vertising themselves  as  teachers,  because  the  demand 
for  schools  was  greater  than  the  supply,  there  were 
at  least  three  well-defined  species  of  burgher  scht)ols: 
the  "guild"  schools,  the  chantry  or  parish  schools, 
and  the  "writing"  or  burgher  schools  proper,  and  into 
which  all  the  others  were  finally  merged. 

Guild  Schools. — In  order  to  protect  themselves  against 
unfair  encroachments,  and  overproduction,  the  vari- 
ous crafts,  such  as  the  shoemakers,  the  silversmiths,  the 
tailors,  and  the  merchant  classes,  arranged  for  appren- 
ticeships covering  years  of  service  within  the  house  and 
home  of  a  master,  and  followed  by  tests  leading  to 
journeymanship  and  then  to  mastership.  Only  those 
on  the  governing  board  of  a  guild  were  allowed  to  have 
more  than  one  apprentice.  Although  the  service  was 
exacting,  the  rights  of  the  apprentice  were  usually 
safeguarded  with  much  punctiliousness,  often  including 
the  rudiments  of  an  education  in  reading,  writing,  and 
reckoning.  Among  the  merchant  guilds,  and  some- 
times among  the  crafts,  geography,  history,  book- 
keeping, and  even  grammar,  were  not  uncommon  as 


CHRISTIAN   EDUCATION  147 

parts  of  the  course.  Sometimes  Latin  and  "letters" 
were  added,  as  in  the  celebrated  cases  of  the  Merchant 
Taylors'  School  in  London,  or  the  equally  famous 
grammar-school  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  England,  where 
Shakespeare  learned  *'a  little  Latin  and  less  Greek." 
These  schools,  like  the  chantry  schools,  now  to  be  de- 
scribed, were  gradually  merged  into  the  town,  or 
burgher,  organizations. 

Chantry  Schools. — The  custom  sprang  up  among 
well-to-do  people  to  provide  by  will  for  the  saying,  or 
chanting,  of  masses  for  the  dead  belonging  to  their 
family.  Inasmuch  as  this  service,  to  which  a  priest 
was  called,  would  not  occupy  very  much  of  his  time, 
it  soon  became  a  part  of  the  stipulations  that  the 
"chantry  priest"  devote  some  of  his  time  to  the  educa- 
tion of  the  children  of  the  family  and  of  others  in  the 
parish.  Sometimes  two  priests  were  called  into  such 
service,  one  to  teach  singing  and  the  other  to  teach 
grammar,  both  of  these  studies  to  be  connected  with 
other  rudiments  of  education. 

Burgher  Schools  Proper. — In  the  burgher  schools 
proper,  where  reading,  writing,  reckoning,  and  such 
branches  as  geography,  history,  and  bookkeeping  were 
the  main  preparations  for  industrial  and  commercial  life, 
the  teachers  were  not  always  priests,  but  the  church 
continued  for  a  long  time  to  claim  supervising  powers, 
and  the  contests  for  such  power  were  sometimes  little 
less  than  violent.  Where  the  municipal  authorities 
gained  the  upper  hand,  the  head  teacher  was  employed 
by  contract,  and  he  in  turn  employed  assistants.  The 
latter  were  commonly  very  poorly  paid,  and  poorly 
qualified  for  service.  In  the  effort  to  improve  their 
condition,  these  teachers  seldom  remained  long  at  the 


148  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

same  place,  and  came  to  be  known  as  "vagantes,"  or 
wanderers.  In  their  journeys  they  were  sometimes 
accompanied  by  pupils  who,  because  of  their  habit  of 
purloining  fowls  as  parts  of  meals,  became  known  as 
ABC  shooters.  The  time  for  special  buildings  had  not 
yet  come,  and  the  sessions  of  the  burgher  schools  were 
held  in  churches,  municipal  buildings,  or  rented  places. 

THE    UNIVERSITIES    OF    THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

Institutions  in  which  ail  the  learning  of  the  time  was 
imparted,  and  which  may  therefore  be  fairly  called 
universities,  such  as  those  of  Athens,  Constantinople, 
Alexandria,  and  Nisibis,  came  to  an  end  through 
Christian  supernaturalism  and  the  inroad  of  the  bar- 
barians before  800  A.  D.  Early  in  the  twelfth  century 
a  similar  fate,  the  result  of  orthodox  fanaticism,  over- 
took the  universities  which  the  Arabs  had  founded  at 
Bagdad  and  elsewhere,  and  less  than  a  century  later 
those  which  the  Moors  had  founded  at  Cordova, 
Toledo,  and  elsewhere  in  Spain.* 

Origin  of  the  MediaBval  Universities. — In  the  mean- 
time Christian  Europe  had  become  acquainted  with 
Saracenic  learning  through  Christian  students  who  at- 
tended the  Moorish  universities  of  Spain  in  large  num- 
bers; through  the  Crusades,  because  they  brought 
Europe  into  closer  touch  with  Arabic  culture,  and  thus 
greatly  broadened  the  mental  horizon;  and  through 
scholarly  translations  of  Saracenic  works,  including  the 
Koran,  into  Latin.  When,  in  this  way,  Christian  or- 
thodoxy began  to  be  threatened  because  reason  dared 
to  ask  faith  questions,  scholasticism  arose,  as  before 
explained.     In  other  words,  reason  and  faith  had  to 

*  Davidson's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  166. 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  149 

be  reconciled  if  Christianity  was  to  live.  But  reason, 
once  unfettered  as  it  thus  came  to  be  in  the  cathedral 
and  monastic  schools,  and  extensively  among  the  youth 
of  Christian  Europe,  became  anxious  to  make  inquiries 
on  its  own  account.  This  spirit  of  inquiry,  this  desire 
to  know,  gave  birth  to  the  medieeval  universities, 
which  were  the  forerunners  of  modern  universities. 
In  their  first  form  the  mediaeval  universities  consisted 
simply  of  teachers  and  students  associated  in  the  free 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  were  not  dependent  in  any 
way  upon  church  or  state  for  their  existence,  organiza- 
tion, or  support. 

Earliest  Mediaeval  Universities. — The  earliest  me- 
diaeval universities  owed  their  origin  to  distinctly  local 
causes,  as  well  as  to  the  general  causes  just  noticed, 
and  developed  in  somewhat  strict  obedience  to  such 
local  impulse. 

Salerno. — Salerno,  near  Naples,  became  the  seat  of 
the  first  mediaeval  university.  The  place,  on  account 
of  climate  and  mineral  springs,  had  long  been  a  popular 
health  resort.  Due  to  this  fact,  perhaps,  the  old 
Greek  medical  works  survived  there.  Latin  transla- 
tions of  these  in  the  eleventh  century,  together  with 
original  contributions,  helped  to  make  the  place  a 
centre  of  medicine.  Other  causes  contributed  to  the 
reputation  of  Salerno,  so  that,  although  it  was  never  a 
chartered  university,  Frederick  II  lent  his  powerful 
patronage  to  the  promotion  of  its  success.  For  some 
reasons,  however,  Salerno  never  became  a  model  for 
other  institutions,  and  gradually  lost  its  prestige  com- 
pletely. 

Bologna. — The  cities  of  northern  Italy  had  never 
allowed  the  knowledge  of  Roman  civil  law  to  die  out 


150  fflSTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

completely.  When  the  German  emperors  threatened 
to  rob  them  of  their  independence,  it  became  important 
to  estabHsh  their  claims  on  Roman  edicts,  charters, 
grants,  etc.  This  necessity  produced  an  enthusiastic 
revival  in  the  study  of  law,  and  early  in  the  twelfth 
century  Bologna  was  becoming  a  special  centre  of  this 
movement.  The  city  now  grew  famous  through  the 
lectures  of  Irnerius,  and  the  complete  codification  of 
the  Justinian  laws. 

Inspired  by  this  scientific  treatment  of  civil  law,  a 
monk  of  Bologna,  Gratian  by  name,  codified  the  edicts 
of  Church  Fathers,  councils,  popes,  Christian  emperors, 
thus  furnishing  the  church  with  a  complete  and  sys- 
tematic work  on  canon  law.  It  was  called  Gratian's 
"  Decrees,"  and  almost  at  once  became  the  great  author- 
ity. Thus  Bologna  had  become  the  Mecca  for  law-stu- 
dents, who  came  in  large  numbers.  In  1158,  probably 
because  the  masters  favored  his  claims,  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa  chartered  the  institution  as  a  university.  It 
is  estimated  that  by  the  opening  of  the  thirteenth 
century  there  were  at  least  five  thousand  students  in 
attendance.  To  a  long-established  course  in  the  lib- 
eral arts  and  law,  medicine  was  added  in  13 16  and 
theology  in  1360. 

Paris. — The  universities  arose  in  mediaeval  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  elsewhere,  as  they  did  in  Italy, 
but  of  all  attempts  north  of  the  Alps  that  of  Paris  was 
first  and  by  far  the  most  famous.  This  university 
grew  out  of  the  cathedral  school  of  Notre  Dame, 
through  the  fame  of  its  head,  William  of  Champeaux, 
early  in  the  twelfth  century.  His  great  successor,  the 
brilliant  Abelard,  who  lectured  there  on  dialectic  and 
theology  between  1108  and  1139,  drew  thousands  of 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  151 

Students  to  Paris  from  all  nations.  Through  his  tal- 
ented pupil,  Peter  the  Lombard,  Abelard  laid  the 
foundations  of  what  in  1180  was  formally  recognized 
by  Louis  VII  as  a  university.  In  1200,  when  law  and 
medicine  had  been  added  to  theology  and  the  liberal 
arts,  it  was  recognized  by  Phihp  Augustus. 

Rapid  Growth. — ^New  universities  arose  in  several 
ways,  sometimes  as  migrations  from  an  older  estab- 
lishment, as  Oxford  from  Paris,  sometimes  as  new 
foundations  by  church  or  state.  In  a  general  way  the 
universities  arising  in  southern  Europe,  as  in  Italy, 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  France,  took  Bologna  as  a  pat- 
tern, while  northern  Europe,  as  in  England,  Scotland, 
Sweden,  Germany,  and  Denmark,  took  Paris  as  a 
pattern.  The  difference  between  the  two  types  of 
universities  will  be  treated  presently.  By  the  close 
of  the  fourteenth  century  about  eighty  universities 
had  sprung  into  existence. 

Privileges. — The  chief  reason  for  this  rapid  increase 
in  the  number  of  the  mediaeval  universities  is  to  be 
found  in  the  special  privileges  granted  by  emperors, 
kings,  lords,  and  popes.  These  privileges  extended  not 
only  to  the  masters  and  the  students,  but  also  to  their 
attendants,  of  which  there  seems  to  have  been  a  goodly 
number,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  so-called  "wan- 
dering" students.  In  the  year  11 58,  as  already  stated, 
Frederick  Barbarossa  granted  charter  privileges  to  the 
university  of  Bologna  which  became  a  sort  of  pattern 
for  other  monarchs  and  other  universities.  Accord- 
ing to  these  provisions  persons  connected  with  the  uni- 
versities were  generally  exempted  from  military  ser- 
vice and  taxation.  Offenders  against  the  laws  were 
granted  trial  by  courts  specially  organized.     In  addi- 


152  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

tion  to  these  general  provisions,  the  power  to  grant 
degrees  was  presently  conferred  upon  the  universities, 
and,  when  privileges  granted  by  sovereigns  were  chal- 
lenged or  denied  by  municipal  authorities,  the  right 
to  move  was  permitted.  Such  a  migration  was  com- 
paratively simple,  inasmuch  as  there  was  nothing  to 
move  except  the  masters  and  their  students.  Costly 
buildings,  libraries,  etc.,  had  not  yet  come. 

License. — Under  the  stimulus  of  these  protective 
privileges  the  number  of  students  increased  rapidly, 
more  masters  became  necessary,  and  new  foundations 
were  fostered,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  license  of  all 
sorts  was  also  fostered.  The  students — so  the  evi- 
dence shows — indulged  in  all  sorts  of  vice,  including 
drunkenness,  gambling,  and  licentiousness.  Students 
coming  from  different  countries,  or  belonging  to  differ- 
ent classes,  provoked  each  other  into  ugly  quarrels. 
Fights  between  ''the  town  and  the  gown"  were  not 
uncommon.  When  this  license  produced  the  "wan- 
dering" students,  scandalous  conduct  was  the  rule. 
Things  became  so  serious  presently  that  expulsion  and 
even  the  revocation  of  university  privileges  were  neces- 
sary. 

Organization. — The  word  university,  as  first  used 
in  connection  with  mediaeval  education,  did  not  mean 
an  institution  in  which  all  the  learning  of  the  time  was 
imparted,  but  rather  an  association  of  masters  and 
students  whose  purpose  was  study.  To  this  fact  refer- 
ence has  been  made.  When  the  number  of  students, 
due  to  the  reputation  of  some  master,  or  association 
of  masters,  reached  large  proportions  in  any  seat  of 
learning,  the  student  body  naturally  grouped  itself 
into  "nations."     At  Bologna,  where  the  students  were 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  153 

usually  mature  men,  they  constituted  the  governing 
body,  deciding  not  only  who  the  masters  should  be, 
but  also  determining  the  fees,  the  beginning  and  the 
end  of  sessions,  etc.  This,  as  stated,  became  the  pat- 
tern of  organization  for  the  universities  of  southern 
Europe.  Each  "nation"  annually  elected  a  represen- 
tative, or  "counsellor,"  and  to  these  counsellors  as  a 
body  the  general  conduct  of  the  student  body  was 
intrusted. 

At  Paris,  and  in  the  universities  which  patterned 
after  Paris,  the  student  body  consisted  largely  of 
younger  men,  and  therefore  the  masters,  constituting 
"faculties,"  became  the  governing  body.  Here  the 
masters  elected  representatives,  called  "deans,"  in 
whom  as  a  body  the  administration  of  affairs  was 
vested. 

In  course  of  time  it  became  the  custom  in  the 
mediaeval  universities  to  administer  the  government 
through  a  joint  body  of  "counsellors"  and  "deans," 
who  in  turn  agreed  upon  a  central  head  called  "rector," 
or  "chancellor." 

Courses  of  Study. — The  fully  developed  mediaeval 
university  offered  courses  in  the  liberal  arts  (philoso- 
phy), law,  medicine,  and  theology,  which  divisions, 
with  many  modifications  of  content,  have  become  the 
pattern  for  modern  universities.  The  content  of  the 
courses  offered  by  each  faculty  differed  considerably 
in  different  constitutions,  and  to  some  degree,  from 
time  to  time,  even  in  the  same  institution.  Aristotle 
continued  to  be  the  great  authority  in  the  liberal  arts 
course,  Hippocrates  and  Galen  in  medicine,  Justinian's 
"Code"  and  Gratian's  "Decrees"  in  law,  and  Peter  the 
Lombard  in  theology.     Such  studies  as  history  and 


154  HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION 

modern  languages  found  no  place  as  yet,  little  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  Roman  classics,  and  almost  none  to 
Greek. 

Methods. — The  great  purpose  of  the  mediaeval  uni- 
versity was  to  train  the  student  to  acquire  what  ac- 
cepted authorities  ofTered,  and  to  debate  successfully 
on  any  subject  acquired.  In  order  to  accomplish  the 
former  purpose,  the  masters  lectured  in  Latin  on  ac- 
cepted texts,  adding  as  vast  an  array  of  other  authori- 
ties, for  and  against,  as  possible,  and  supplementing 
the  whole  by  opinions  of  their  own.  In  the  absence 
of  printed  books,  and  because  even  enough  manu- 
scripts were  difficult  to  supply,  much  repetition  of  the 
text  and  copious  notes  were  necessary. 

In  the  accomplishment  of  the  second  purpose  stu- 
dents were  required  to  contend  with  each  other  in 
Latin,  singly  or  in  groups,  in  formal  disputations,  sub- 
ject to  much  rhetorical  and  logical  regulation,  and 
which  in  the  latter  Middle  Ages  degenerated  into 
frivolous  contentions  for  victory  rather  than  for  fact 
and  truth.  Authority,  subtlety  of  argument,  skill  in 
debating  amounting  to  a  sort  of  intellectual  fencing — 
these,  rather  than  independent  research  and  love  for 
absolute  truth,  were  the  great  ideals. 

Degrees. — After  years  of  study,  lasting  from  three 
to  seven,  the  student  might  hope  to  win  a  "degree." 
Different  private  and  pubhc  debates  paved  the  way. 
Three  degrees  were  possible,  corresponding  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  ''guilds,"  where  the  learner  was  first  an 
apprentice,  then  a  journeyman,  and  finally  a  master. 
So  in  the  universities,  the  first  or  initial  degree  made 
the  young  man  a  "bachelor,"  or  candidate;  the  next, 
which  resulted  from  success  in  private  debates,  made 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  155 

him  a  "master";  and  the  last,  following  the  public 
debate,  made  him  a  "doctor."  In  course  of  time  the 
mastership  and  doctorate  were  conferred  together, 
and  admitted  the  graduate  into  the  body  of  masters, 
or  professors,  and  permitted  him  to  compete  with  them 
in  winning  students  for  themselves. 

Influence. — While  it  will  be  readily  admitted  that 
the  mediseval  universities  discouraged  freedom  both 
in  course  and  m.ethod,  it  must  also  be  granted,  we 
think,  that  the  process  of  acquisition  made  industry 
and  certainty  necessary,  and  that  tke  debating  process 
led  to  intellectual  resourcefulness  worthy  of  attain- 
ment. 

The  institutional  value  of  the  mediaeval  universities 
can  hardly  be  overestimated.  They  were  a  powerful 
protest  against  absolutism  on  the  part  of  the  church 
and  the  state;  for,  in  the  great  quarrels  between  the 
two,  they  came  to  be  the  recognized  courts  of  arbitra- 
tion. In  short,  they  paved  the  way  for  the  later  more 
complete  liberation  of  reason. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  ''  General  History." 

2.  Davidson's  "History  of  Education." 

3.  Graves'  "  Histor)'^  of  Education,"  vol.  I. 

4.  Irving's  "Mahomet  and  His  Successors." 

5.  Laurie's  "  Rise  of  the  Universities." 

6.  Guizot's  "History  of  Civilization." 

7.  Azarias'  "Essays  Educational." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  did  this  collision  between  Christianity  and  paganism 
end,  and  why? 

2.  Compare  the  social  and  moral  conditions  of  the  world  as 


156  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

it  was  before  Christ's  coming  with  what  they  had  become 
through  the  other  wo  rldliness  of  the  first  four  centuries  of  Chris- 
tian education. 

3.  How  did  the  church  become  the  sole  custodian  of  educa- 
tion in  the  sixth  century  A.  D.? 

4.  Why  did  the  church  commit  the  cause  of  education  almost 
wholly  to  monasticism? 

5.  Explain,  by  gathering  up  the  contributing  causes,  what 
is  meant  by  monasticism. 

6.  How  and  through  whom  did  monasticism  rise  in  Egypt? 
Explain  its  spread  into  Greece,  Italy,  and  western  Europe. 

7.  What  vows  gather  up  all  the  aspirations  of  monasticism? 
How  did  St.  Benedict  make  the  monasteries  the  great  educational 
agency  of  the  church? 

8.  What  were  the  seven  liberal  arts  of  the  monastic  schools  ? 
Describe  the  growth  of  each  in  content,  and  their  place  in  the 
curriculum. 

9.  Who  attended  the  monastic  schools?  Describe  the 
methods  of  instruction,  and  the  results. 

10.  What  were  the  parish  schools?  Describe  their  function, 
curriculum,  and  character. 

11.  What  were  the  cathedral  schools?  Why,  with  some 
famous  exceptions,  were  they  inferior  to  the  Alexandrian  cate- 
chetical school? 

12.  What  were  the  defects  of  monasticism  as  an  educational 
agency?     To  what  great  movements  did  it  contribute? 

13.  Who  was  Charlemagne?  Tell  what  causes  contributed 
to  make  him  the  great  champion  of  Christian  civilization. 
What  was  his  "dream"? 

14.  Describe  in  detail  the  various  ways  in  which  Charlemagne 
promoted  education. 

15.  Describe  the  educational  career  of  the  great  spiritual  suc- 
cessors of  Charlemagne. 

16.  Who  were  the  Saracens?  Who  was  Mohammed?  What 
was  the  origin  of  the  Koran,  and  the  "crescent"  of  the  ca- 
liphs ? 


CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  157 

17.  How  did  it  become  necessary  for  the  Koran  to  garb  itself 
in  Hellenism  ? 

18.  What  did  the  Hellenized  Saracens  contribute  to  education 
in  Arabia  and  in  Spain?     Explain  in  great  detail. 

19.  What  was  scholasticism?  State  the  contributing  causes 
that  produced  this  revolt. 

20.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  great  schoolmen  Erigena,  An- 
selm,  Abelard,  Aquinas,  Scotus,  Occam. 

21.  Describe  scholasticism  as  a  "method,"  and  its  results. 

22.  Describe  the  influence  of  scholasticism  on  various  medi- 
aeval conditions. 

23.  Give  the  origin  and  trace  the  complicating  development 
of  feudalism.     What  were  its  effects  on  education? 

24.  What  ideals  gathered  up  the  aspirations  of  feudalism? 
What  was  chivalry? 

25.  What  were  the  Crusades?  Account  for  them,  and  state 
hew  they  contributed  to  education. 

26.  How  did  the  Crusades  produce  the  knight  schools?  De- 
scribe the  education  of  a  knight  by  periods. 

27.  What  notice  did  chivalry  take  of  woman?  Explain  the 
vast  services  of  chivalry. 

28.  Why  was  "commerce"  never  wholly  driven  from  western 
Europe?  What  was  the  fate  of  commerce  when  feudalism 
spread  over  Europe? 

29.  How  did  the  Crusades  revive  commerce,  and  how  as  a 
result  did  they  produce  cities? 

30.  What  were  the  guild  schools,  the  chantry  schools,  and  the 
burgher  schools?     Describe  each  of  these  in  much  detail. 

31.  What  became  of  Hellenic  universities  and  later  of  Sara- 
cenic universities? 

32.  Especially  through  what  contributing  causes  may  we  ac- 
count for  the  rise  of  the  mediaeval  universities?     Explain. 

25.  Sketch  the  history  of  the  three  earliest  mediaeval  univer- 
sities.    Go  into  the  details. 

34.  Describe  how  new  universities  arose  rapidly  all  over 
mediaeval  Europe. 


,158    •  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

35.  What  privileges  were  conferred  upon  them?     What  were 
the  results? 

36.  Describe  the  earlier  and  final  organization  of  tnc  mediaeval 
universities. 

37.  Describe  the  courses,  methods,  degrees,  and  influence  of 
the  mediaeval  universities,  going  into  much  detail. 


t_»BR  ARV 

STAIi  NOKMAL  SCHOOL 

MANUAL  A:<TS   V,!}  HtRE  ECtXOWH. 

-J-NfA  ''.«k:<ARA,  CALIFORNIA 


52-AJV*2) 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE  RENAISSANCE 

The  repression  and  uniformity  to  which  the  human 
spirit  had  submitted  for  a  thousand  years,  only  under 
protest,  became  more  and  more  unbearable  until  the 
mind  at  last  burst  through  these  fetters  and  attained 
to  a  very  remarkable  freedom  of  activity  known  as 
the  "Renaissance"  (rebirth). 

Causes. — A  num.ber  of  things  conspired  to  bring 
about  this  movement.  The  defense  whicli  Christian 
orthodoxy  had  to  make  when  Saracenic  learning  crept 
into  the  cathedral  schools  and  the  monasteries,  and 
produced  scholasticism,  was  probably  the  first  dis- 
tinct summons  to  the  new  mental  activity,  and,  through 
the  recovery  of  Aristotle's  works  on  physics,  it  grew 
to  very  large  dimensions  in  the  universities  after  the 
Crusades. 

The  Crusades,  producing  chivalry,  commerce,  cities, 
wealth,  and  culture,  also  contributed  powerfully  to 
the  same  result,  inasmuch  as  all  these  things  made  it 
necessary  for  the  mind  to  emancipate  itself  from  the 
narrow  limits  to  which  the  prevailing  otherworldliness 
and  formal  orthodoxy  had  enslaved  it. 

Spirit  of  the  Renaissance. — ^The  men  who  were  car- 
ried into  the  new-born  freedom  dared  to  look  at  the 
world  around  them — at  nature — and  literally  revelled 
in  its  beauty.  The  joys  of  the  present  life  in  all  its 
forms  took  complete  possession.     The  body  was  no 

159 


160  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

longer  looked  upon  as  a  handicap  but  as  a  gift.  In- 
tellect dared  to  solve  the  problems  which  life  and  the 
world  present,*  and  felt  the  consciousness  of  power. 
The  familiar  individualism  of  the  Greek  mind  (see 
chapter  on  Greek  education),  wrapped  up  in  self- 
conscious,  self-expressive  acstheticism,  had  reappeared 
in  the  world.  Beauty  in  the  Greek  sense,  with  free 
individuality,  had  once  more,  regardless  of  results  to 
the  social  whole,  become  objects  of  worship. 

Revival  of  Learning. — The  choice  coterie  who,  cov- 
ertly defying  orthodoxy,  had  dared  to  read  the  Graeco- 
Roman  literatures  in  the  monasteries  or  in  the  courts, 
practically  all  through  the  Middle  Ages,  were  of  course 
the  first  to  recognize  a  kinship  of  human  interests. 
During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  accord- 
ingly, the  study  of  the  "classics"  had  become  the 
great  pursuit  of  the  learned  class.  And  because  the 
Graeco-Roman  literatures  were  beheved  to  be  the 
fullest  and  best  description  of  all  that  is  "human,"  it 
became  the  custom  to  call  these  writings  the  "humani- 
ties." For  the  same  reason  the  enthusiastic  study  of 
the  classics  was  called  "humanism,"  and  the  students 
themselves  "humanists."  Humanism,  however,  did 
not  confine  itself  simply  to  the  study  of  the  Gr£Eco-Ro- 
man  literatures,  but,  inspired  by  the  precious  models, 
succeeded  in  producing  a  literature  of  its  own  rivalling 
that  of  the  best  days  of  Rome  and  Athens. 

This  humanism,  which  was  only  the  literary  phase 
of  the  Renaissance,  was  accompanied  by  an  art  re- 
vival equally  enthusiastic  and  productive.  Before  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century  Italy  had  produced  such 
painters  as  Botticelli,  Michelangelo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
*  Adams'  "  CivilizaJion  During  the  Middle  Ages,"  p.  365. 


THE  RENAISSANCE  161 

Andrea  del  Sarto,  Titian,  and  others,  while  Spain  had 
produced  Velasquez,  Flanders  Rubens,  and  Holland 
Rembrandt.  Sculpture  was  hardly  behind  painting  in 
rapid  productive  energy.  Progress  and  discovery  had 
become  the  marks  of  the  age. 

•  I  ITALY 

This  exulting  freedom  of  spirit,  which  was  so  char- 
acteristic of  Graeco-Roman  life  at  its  best,  and  into 
which  the  world  was  now  reborn,  found  its  first  great 
representatives  in  Italy. 

Special  Causes. — There  were  three  or  four  very 
special  reasons  for  the  early  rebirth  of  learning  in  Italy. 
Nearness  to  the  papacy  had  exposed  it  to  the  peril  of 
familiarity  and  thus  weakened  its  authority  over  the 
''intellectuals."  The  pohtical  strife  between  rival 
factions  within  cities,  and  rivalry  between  cities  them- 
selves for  commercial  and  political  supremacy,  natu- 
rally sharpened  the  wits  of  men.  For  the  sake  of  the 
prestige  which  association  with  "learning"  would  give 
them  the  various  "city  tyrants"  patronized  distin- 
guished humanists  at  the  courts  and  encouraged  them 
to  found  schools.  The  GrjEco-Roman  literatures,  as 
before  stated,  had  continued  to  have  devotees  in 
cathedral  schools  and  monasteries.  ; 

DANTE 

Dante  (1265-1321)  was  born  and  educated  in  Flor- 
ence. His  teacher  was  a  famous  rhetorician  and  philos- 
opher, and  Dante  loved  him.  He  was  drawn  into  the 
political  turmoil  of  the  age  and  banished. 


162  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

We  are  not  surprised,  therefore,  that  he  gave  the 
world  his  "Inferno,"  the  "Divine  Comedy,"  which  has 
made  his  name  immortal.  While  the  thought  of  the 
"Inferno"  is  mediaeval,  he  gave  the  Italian  language 
a  literary  dignity  which  it  has  never  lost,  and  thus  he 
became  the  great  Renaissance  prophet,  the  forerunner 
of  freedom  in  beauty  of  style. 

PETRARCH 

The  first  great  humanist  was  Petrarch  (1304-1374). 
His  father  was  an  eminent  jurist,  banished  in  the  same 
year  as  Dante.  The  family  removed  to  A^^gnon, 
France,  and  Petrarch  had  all  the  educational  advan- 
tages of  the  splendid  institution  of  Montpelier.  His 
father  wanted  the  boy  to  devote  his  life  to  law,  but 
Petrarch  preferred  a  life  of  letters,  and  became  the 
first  great  humanistic  poet. 

The  great  Renan  calls  Petrarch  "the  first  modern 
man."  Adams  says  that  Petrarch  was  the  very  em- 
bodiment of  the  Renaissance  spirit.*  He  emphasized 
the  present  life,  with  its  beauty  and  its  joys,  and  thus 
turned  his  back  on  mediaeval  othcrworldliness.  He 
appealed  with  all  the  vigor  of  new-born  indi\adualism 
from  tradition  and  authority  to  direct  observation  and 
aggressive  reason.  Even  Aristotle  suffered  at  Pe- 
trarch's hands,  and  his  impatience  with  the  narrow- 
ness and  conservatism  of  the  universities  is  almost 
heroic. 

Carried  away  by  this  felt  kinship  with  the  ancients 
he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  hfe  in  restoring  ancient 
culture.  He  did  this  by  collecting  and  repairing  Latin 
*  "Civilization  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  p.  375. 


THE  RENAISSANCE  163 

manuscripts,  by  productions  of  his  own  full  of  the 
classic  spirit,  and  by  his  untiring  efforts  to  inspire 
others  with  his  own  enthusiasm,  thus  producing  famous 
disciples. 

BOCCACCIO 

One  of  these  disciples  was  Boccaccio  (1313-1375). 
As  a  young  man  Boccaccio  had  studied  at  Naples,  and 
produced  tales,  romances,  and  poems  that  attracted 
much  attention.  His  greatest  work  is  the  "Decam- 
eron" (ten-day  book),  filled  with  classical  allusions  and 
the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance.  He  had  become  an  ad- 
mirer of  Petrarch,  but  met  him  for  the  first  time  in 
1350  when  the  latter  came  on  a  brief  visit  to  Florence, 
where  Boccaccio  was  then  lecturing  on  Dante,  and  pur- 
suing his  literary  labors. 

Boccaccio,  like  Petrarch,  served  the  Renaissance  by 
his  untiring  efforts  to  collect,  preserve,  and  copy  ancient 
manuscripts,  and  by  producing  numerous  works  highly 
classical  in  spirit. 

CHRYSOLORAS 

The  Greek  language  had  almost  disappeared  from 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  little  was  done  for  it  even  after 
Petrarch's  advent.  Petrarch  had  studied  Greek,  but 
knew  so  little  of  it  that  when  a  friend  sent  him"  Homer  " 
as  a  gift,  he  said:  "Thy  Homer  is  dumb  to  me,  while  I 
most  certainly  am  deaf  to  him.  Nevertheless,  I  am 
delighted  at  the  very  sight  of  him."  He  persuaded 
Boccaccio  to  translate  Homer,  and  encouraged  the 
study  of  Greek  authors.  Thus  it  was  that  enthusiastic 
humanists  frequently  visited  Greece  and  Constanti- 
nople to  secure  copies  of  Greek  authors. 


164  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Chrysoloras. — Greek  scholars  had  gradually  begun 
to  come  into  Italy.  In  1396  Manuel  Chrysoloras  (1350- 
141 5),  sent  to  Venice  by  the  Eastern  emperor  to  imx- 
plore  aid  against  the  Turks,  was  invited  to  the  pro- 
fessorship of  Greek  which  through  the  influence  of 
Boccaccio  had  been  established  at  Florence.  Young 
Italians,  even  in  Venice,  and  jiow  in  Florence,  literally 
besieged  him  in  their  eagerness  to  learn.  Greek.  He 
remained  in  Italy  sixteen  years,  making  Florence  the 
new  seat  of  Greek  learning,-  though  he  spent  some  of 
his  time  founding  schools  at  Pavia,  Venice,  Milan. 
Padua,  and  Rome.  Apart  from  his  great  work  as  a 
teacher,  who  produced  famous  disciples  and  in  turn 
founded  schools,  his  best  contributions  to  the  Renais- 
sance were  a  series  of  translations  of  Greek  authors, 
and  a  work  on  Greek  grammar  which  Jong  remained 
the  one  available  authority.  Perhaps  the  most  note- 
worthy disciple  of  Chrysoloras  was  "Vittorino  da 
Feltre." 

VITTORINO   DA    FELTRE 

Vittorino  (1378-1446)  took  his  degree  at  Padua, 
where  he  had  become  a  fine  Latin  scholar,  and  re- 
mained to  take  a  postgraduate  course  in  mathematics 
under  private  masters.  He  became  a  teacher  here, 
but  after  twenty  years  of  hard  work  went  to  Venice  to 
study  Greek  under  a  great  master. 

On  his  return  to  Padua  he  began  to  teach  in  his  own 
house.  When  he  was  forty-five  years  old,  the  Marquis 
of  Mantua,  who  hoped  to  add  lustre  to  his  court,  per- 
suaded Vittorino  to  become  the  court  teacher.  The 
marquis  granted  every  wish,  and  gave  him  a  suitable 
building  called  the  "pleasure  house."     Vittorino  and 


THE   RENAISSANCE  165 

theprinces  who  were  his  pupils  lived  in  the  school, 
but,  at  his  request,  the  sons  of  his  friends  and  other 
promising  young  men  were  received  into  the  school. 

Departing  somewhat  from  the  defiant  freedom  of  the 
earlier  humanists,  he  aimed  at  a  harmonious  develop- 
ment of  mind,  body,  and  morals.  He  used  as  means 
to  ends  not  only  the  Latin  and  Greek  classics,  but  also 
the  Church  Fathers,  and  even  the  liberal  arts,  giving 
the  arts  large  content.  Outdoor  life  and  games  were 
encouraged  as  part  of  the  curriculum. 

The  scarcity  of  books  compelled  him  to  resort  much 
to  dictation  as  a  method  of  teaching,  but,  due  to  his 
resourceful  personality  he  produced  very  praiseworthy 
results,  and  became  the  model  for  other  schools. 

Highest  Points. — In  the  year  1453,  when  the  cap- 
ture of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  drove  the  Greek 
scholars  into  exile,  they  were  received  with  open  arms 
into  Italy,  where  such  patrons  as  Nicholas  V  (1398- 
1455)  ^-nd  Leo  X  (1475-1521)  made  it  possible  to  carry 
on  the  work  of  the  Renaissance  with  an  enthusiasm 
that  amounted  to  abandonment.  Nicholas  V  encour- 
aged the  humanists  to  collect  manuscripts  and  founded 
the  Vatican  library  for  their  permanent  storage,  while 
Leo  X  (1513-1521)  by  and  by  encouraged  artists  like 
Michelangelo. 

Influence. — The  court  schools  produced  by  Italian 
humanism,  through  their  excellency  in  course  and 
spirit,  became  competitors  of  the  universities  and  at 
length  compelled  them  to  give  a  large  place  to  the 
classical  literatures  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  This 
was  particularly  true  toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century  in  Florence,  Padua,  Pavia,  Milan,  Ferrara, 
and  Rome. 


166  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

While  some  of  the  Italians,  conspicuous  among  them 
Vittorino,  endeavored  to  use  the  ancient  learning,  in 
connection  with  the  Christian  writers,  as  means  in 
moral  education,  and  while  others,  like  the  learned 
itinerant  philosopher  Valla,  for  a  short  time  a  pupil 
of  Vittorino,  repudiated  the  church  and  her  formal 
confessions  openly,  the  great  majority  of  the  "learned" 
class,  including  Nicholas  V,  pagan  and  sceptical  as 
they  had  become,  remained  in  outward  connection 
with  the  church,  and  even  attained  to  the  highest 
places  in  the  gift  of  the  church.  Probably  the  most 
extreme  case  of  paganistic  humanism  among  "church- 
men" was  that  of  Peter  Bembo  (1470-1547),  the  liter- 
ary ruler  at  the  brilliant  court  of  Leo  X,  who,  himself 
a  pope,  was  still  at  heart  what  his  father,  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent,  of  the  house  of  Medici,  had  been  in  his 
love  for  art,  literature,  and  paganism,  a  veritable  pagan. 

In  its  best  representatives  Italian  humanism  had 
risen  to  the  highest  purpose  of  complete  human  devel- 
opment, through  a  broad  course  in  the  study  of  the 
classics,  supplemented  by  the  Church  Fathers,  mathe- 
matics, science,  music,  and  physical  culture;  and,  by 
adaptation  of  work  to  the  pupil's  interest  and  ability, 
discipline  went  so  far  as  to  banish  the  rod.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  however,  Italian 
humanism  degenerated  into  dead  formahsm,  later 
called  "Ciceronianism,"  consisting  chiefly  in  the  study 
of  formal  grammar  and  style  instead  of  content  and 
moral  purpose.  In  short,  Italian  humanism  defeated 
its  own  highest  possibilities,  which  were,  however, 
later  realized  more  fully  north  of  the  Alps. 


THE   RENAISSANCE  _167 

NORTH   OF    THE   ALPS 

The  Renaissance  did  not  expend  all  its  force  in  Italy, 
but  spread  into  France,  Germany,  England,  and  else- 
where, and  was  greatly  modified. 

Causes. — Wandering  scholars  first  carried  the  Re- 
naissance north  of  the  Alps,  thus  paving  the  way  for 
a  larger  coming  when  Gutenberg's  invention  of  print- 
ing with  movable  type  (1456)  spread  through  Europe, 
making  the  multiplication  of  all  texts  rapid  and  con- 
tinuous. Toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  as 
the  movement  gained  momentum,  humanistic  scholars 
were  invited  north  in  great  numbers,  and  admirers  of 
the  new  learning  from  the  north  became  students  at 
Florence  and  other  ItaHan  centres  of  humanism. 

FRANCE 

It  was  only  natural  that  France,  so  long  the  centre 
of  intellectual  activity,  should  be  interested.  As  early 
as  1458  a  Greek  professorship  was  estabKshed  in  the 
University  of  Paris.  The  Renaissance  movement  was 
greatly  aided  by  the  expedition  which  the  French 
kings,  Charles  VIII  and  Louis  XII,  in  the  interest  of 
hereditary  claims,  made  into  Italy  in  1494  and  1498, 
respectively.  Although  these  expeditions  failed  in 
their  original  purpose,  they  brought  French  thinkers 
into  contact  with  the  fascinating  movement  at  such 
sources  as  Florence,  Naples,  Milan,  and  Rome. 

Owing  to  conservatism,  the  universities  of  France 
refused  to  follow  the  lead  of  Paris  and  opposed  the 
new  learning  for  some  time,  but  the  cause  found  an 
influential  patron  in  the  young  king,  Francis  I  (15 15- 


168  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

1547).  Through  his  support  many  prominent  human- 
istic scholars  appeared  as  champions  of  the  classics. 
Among  them  were  the  celebrated  authors  and  teachers 
Budaeus  and  Corderius.  The  new  education  was  grad- 
ually swept  into  all  the  better  schools  of  France. 

College  of  Guyenne. — One  of  the  first  important 
humanistic  institutions  was  the  college  of  Guyenne  at 
Bordeaux,  where  Corderius  and  learned  men  like  him 
were  members  of  the  faculty. 

Latin  and  religion  were  the  chief  studies  in  a  ten- 
year  secondary  course.  Greek,  mathematics,  and 
rhetoric  were  offered  in  the  upper  classes.  A  two-year 
course  in  philosophy,  corresponding  somewhat  to  the 
arts  course  in  the  universities,  was  added,  and  was 
devoted  chiefly  to  Aristotle's  works  on  logic  and  natural 
science. 

The  school  became  very  popular  through  the  excel- 
lency of  its  methods  of  instruction.  Grammar,  for 
example,  was  approached  through  the  mother  tongue, 
*4orms"  were  taught  by  the  "development"  method, 
disputations  were  used  as  stimuli,  and  discipline  was 
mild.  We  may  consider  this  school  a  fair  sample  of 
many. 

GERMANY 

Wandering  teachers  of  the  classics,  visiting  higher 
institutions  of  learning  in  the  German  states,  began  to 
leave  their  impress  wherever  they  went,  but  the  earliest 
institutional  effort  to  promote  the  Renaissance  move- 
ment in  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  and  perhaps  France, 
was  made  by  the  ''Brethren  of  the  Common  Life." 

The  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life. — In  the  year 
1376,  twenty  years  before  Chrysoloras  came  to  Flor- 


THE  RENAISSANCE  169 

ence,  Gerhart  Groot  had  founded  a  brotherhood  of 
priests  at  Deventer,  Holland,  known  as  the  "Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life,"  because  it  was  to  be  their  mis- 
sion to  improve  the  masses  by  combating  ignorance. 
In  honor  of  their  patron  saint,  Jerome,  they  have 
also  been  called  Jeromites,  or  Hieronymians.  These 
"brethren"  took  no  monastic  vows,  and  could  with- 
draw from  the  order  if  they  wished  to  do  so,  but  they 
lived  a  very  simple  life,  supporting  themselves  by  copy- 
ing manuscripts,  and  devoting  all  other  time  at  their 
command  to  teaching. 

They  were  specially  devoted  to  the  "common  peo- 
ple," whom  they  taught  free  of  charge.  In  some 
places  they  served  as  assistants  in  schools  already  in 
existence;  in  other  places  they  founded  new  schools 
and  undertook  the  whole  management.  As  long  as 
they  pursued  their  original  purpose  they  taught  read- 
ing, writing,  singing,  and  the  mother  tongue  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Scriptures,  placing  the  emphasis  upon 
the  last  two.  Their  services  were  very  much  in  de- 
mand, and  they  became  so  popular  that  even  before  they 
undertook  to  champion  humanism,  they  had  estab- 
Hshed  some  forty-five  "houses"  closely  linked  together, 
and  extending  through  the  Netherlands,  Germany, 
and  France. 

When  the  influence  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  be- 
gan to  be  felt  in  the  northlands,  the  brethren  became 
ardent  advocates.  They  continued  faithful  to  their 
original  purpose  in  religion  and  morals,  but  added  the 
classics  and  Hebrew,  thus  expanding  into  secondary 
schools.  Rhetoric  and  theology  often  found  a  place 
in  the  higher  classes,  and  occasionally  the  course  cov- 
ered the  work  of  the  faculty  of  arts  in  a  university. 


170  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

In  a  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  they 
had  taken  the  Renaissance  into  their  heart,  the  Hier- 
onymians  had  established  one  hundred  and  fifty  insti- 
tutions, furnishing  teachers  for  other  institutions  all 
over  Europe. 

Influence.— The  work  of  the  brethren  deepened  the 
impress  of  Renaissance  wanderers,  and  thus  helped  to 
Garry  the  new  movement  into  the  northern  universities. 
Erfurt  established  a  chair  of  classics  in  1494,  and  was 
soon  afterward  completely  reformed  upon  a  humanistic 
basis.  Other  German  universities,  like  Heidelberg, 
were  similarly  reformed.  New  universities,  like  Wit- 
tenberg in  1502,  were  humanistic  from  the  beginning. 

Most  of  the  northern  Renaissance  leaders  were 
products  of  early  training  received  in  the  schools  of 
the  brethren.  Perhaps  this  was  largely  due  to  the 
wonderful  personality  and  teaching  power  of  Wessel 
(1420-1489),  the  first  important  champion  of  the  new 
learning  in  the  schools  of  the  brethren.  Among  pupils 
who  became  famous  humanists  were  Agricola,  Reuch- 
lin,  and  Erasmus. 

AGRICOLA 

The  first  German  humanist  of  great  importance  was 
Agricola  (1443-1485). 

Agricola. — Although  best  known  by  this  name,  his 
real  name  was  Hussman  (farmer),  but,  obedient  to  the 
custom  of  the  times,  he  had  translated  it  into  Latin. 

For  a  time  he  was  a  pupil  of  Thomas  a  Kempis, 
then  he  attended  the  University  of  Louvain  for  two 
years,  and  at  Paris  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
Wessel,  the  great  Hieronymian.  Then  he  went  to 
Italy  to  avail  himself  of  the  splendid  opportunities  of 


THE   RENAISSANCE  171 

several  famous  institutions.  When  he  returned  to  his 
own  people  he  was  the  embodiment  of  all  the  best  in- 
fluences of  the  Renaissance,  and  his  reputation  for 
scholarship  and  eloquence  was  so  great  that  both 
courts  and  cities  vied  with  each  other  to  secure  his 
services. 

Through  the  persuasions  of  his  friend  Dalberg, 
Bishop  of  Worms,  he  established  himself  at  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  divided  his  time  between  private  study- 
ing and  public  lecturing.  His  knowledge  of  Greek  and 
Latin  were  marvellous.  He  understood  French  and 
Italian,  and  at  the  age  of  forty-one  he  began  to  study 
Hebrew  in  order  that  he  might  read  the  Old  Testament. 

So  great  was  his  devotion  to  the  cause  of  learning 
that  he  would  not  consent  to  accept  a  position  as  head 
of  a  school  in  Antwerp,  even  when  the  offer  was  pressed 
upon  him.  In  declining  the  offer  he  gave  the  Antwerp 
school  authorities  a  piece  of  advice  which  still  lives, 
telling  them  in  effect  that  a  real  teacher  professionally 
trained  is  worth  getting  at  any  price,  however  high, 
and  that  no  amount  of  training  for  anything  else,  even 
for  theology  or  oratory,  can  be  equivalent  to  such  pro- 
fessional training.  He  served  the  cause  of  humanistic 
education  notably  through  a  treatise  on  "Rules  of 
Study,"  in  which  he  exhibits  much  pedagogical  insight. 

REUCHLIN 

Reuchlin. — Like  his  friend  Agricola,  Reuchlin  (1455- 
1522)  caught  the  spirit  of  Wessel.  He  studied  at 
Paris,  where  he  went  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  He  con- 
tinued his  classical  studies  at  Basel,  where  he  took  his 
degree.     In  1498  he  was  sent  to  Rome  on  some  im- 


172  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

portant  mission,  and  while  there  devoted  all  his  spare 
time  to  the  study  of  Hebrew  under  a  learned  Jew,  and 
to  the  collection  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  manuscripts. 

He  served  the  cause  of  humanism  as  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  at  Basel,  and  also  of  Hebrew  at 
Tubingen,  and  for  a  short  time  at  Heidelberg.  He 
wrote  a  Latin  lexicon,  published  fine  editions  of  the 
Greek  classics,  and  in  1506,  in  the  interests  of  true 
Christianity,  as  he  wrote  to  his  friend  Cardinal 
Hadrian,  he  published  a  Hebrew  grammar  and  lexicon, 
the  first  work  of  the  kind  in  Germany.  He  was  very 
proud  of  this  achievement,  calling  it  a  "monument 
more  enduring  than  bronze,"  and  his  friends  Erasmus 
and  Luther  praised  and  admired  these  wonderful  con- 
tributions to  the  cause  of  Christian  theology. 

Controversy. — While  at  Heidelberg,  Reuchlin  was 
unfortunate  enough  to  become  involved  in  a  bitter 
controversy  that  covered  nine  or  ten  years.  In  1510 
a  baptized  rabbi,  Pfefiferkorn  by  name,  to  pave  the 
way  for  the  conversion  of  his  race,  urged  Emperor 
Maximilian  to  destroy  all  Hebrew  books  except  the 
Bible.  On  account  of  his  reputation  for  Hebrew 
scholarship  the  matter  was  now  referred  to  Reuchlin, 
who  promptly  advised  that  only  such  books  as  were 
written  against  Christianity  should  be  destroyed,  and 
added  that  "the  best  way  to  convert  the  Israelites 
would  be  to  establish  two  professors  of  the  Hebrew 
language  in  each  university,  who  should  teach  the 
theologians  to  read  the  Bible  in  Hebrew,  and  thus 
refute  the  Jewish  doctors."  This  very  reasonable  ad- 
vice offended  the  Dominican  friars  of  Cologne,  and 
they  attacked  Reuchlin  with  great  bitterness,  and  the 
controversy  became  general,  until  finally  the  pope,  to 


THE  RENAISSANCE  173 

whom  the  problem  was  referred,  decided  in  favor  of 
Reuchlin.  The  leading  thinkers  of  the  age,  Erasmus 
among  them,  sided  with  ReuchHn  and  recognized  the 
splendid  service  which  this  learned  humanist  had  ren- 
dered religion  and  truth.  He  had,  in  fact,  paved  the 
way  for  Luther. 

ERASMUS 

The  most  brilliant  humanist  of  the  age  was  Erasmus 
(1467-1536),  a  Hollander. 

Erasmus. — Like  Agricola  and  Reuchlin,  Erasmus 
had  caught  the  spirit  of  all  that  was  best  in  the  Re- 
naissance from  the  Hieronymians.  Like  the  German 
Melanchthon  after  him,  he  was  very  precocious. 
Agricola,  on  a  visit  to  Deventer,  saw  him  there  at  the 
age  of  eight,  and  prophesied  his  future  greatness.  He 
lost  his  parents  when  still  a  youth,  and  his  guardians, 
in  order  to  get  possession  of  his  patrimony,  persuaded 
him  to  become  a  monk  of  the  Augustinian  order,  but 
finding  that  he  was  wholly  out  of  sympathy  with  mo- 
nasticism,  he  refused  to  submit  to  the  decisions  of  his 
guardians,  and  presently,  to  his  great  relief,  was  released 
from  his  vows  by  the  Bishop  of  Cambrai,  and  sent  to 
the  University  of  Paris.  Here,  as  he  said,  he  gave  up 
his  "whole  soul  to  Greek  learning,"  the  elements  of 
which  he  had  acquired  by  private  study.  He  wanted 
to  "buy  Greek  books,"  and  then  "some  clothes,"  but 
because  his  allowance  was  small,  he  took  pupils  in 
Greek.  In  1509,  while  still  at  Paris,  he  met  some 
Greek  students  who  induced  him  to  visit  Oxford. 
Here  he  became  acquainted  with  Colet  and  More,  and 
studied  under  Grocyn  and  Linacre.  He  was  so  de- 
lighted with  the  learning  of  his  Oxford  friends,  especially 


174  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

with  the  scholarship  of  Linacre,  that  he  concluded  it 
was  not  necessary  to  go  to  Italy  to  study  Greek,  but 
presently,  when  poverty  no  longer  pinched  so  hard, 
he  undertook  to  visit  the  ancient  libraries,  meet  men 
whom  he  admired,  and  pursue  his  favorite  study  of 
Greek  at  Venice,  Florence,  and  other  centres. 

In  1 510  Erasmus  became  the  professor  of  divinity 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  also  taught  Greek.  He  helped 
Colet  establish  what  later  became  the  famous  school 
of  St.  Paul's,  London,  and  he  undertook  to  found  a 
college  at  Louvain,  but,  when  the  Reformation  and  its 
controversies  began,  he  withdrew  into  learned  retire- 
ment at  Basel,  the  home  of  humanism  and  printing, 
and  although  he  could  not  be  persuaded,  even  by 
Luther,  to  speak  for  the  Reformation,  he  contributed 
powerfully  to  its  cause  by  means  of  his  writings — all  in 
Latin. 

By  means  of  satires,  with  innocent  titles,  he  exposed 
the  terrible  laxity  of  faith  and  morals  in  church  and 
society,  and  thus  aided  the  Reformation.  In  15 16  he 
published  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  accom- 
panied by  a  Latin  translation  and  notes,  that  gave 
learned  Europe  the  gospel  as  it  was  preached  by  Christ 
and  his  apostles,  thus  serving  the  cause  of  the  Reforma- 
tion directly  through  his  expert  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
language. 

The  man  who  had  thus  called  attention  to  the  real 
content,  or  thought,  of  the  Scriptures,  also  called  atten- 
tion to  the  content,  or  thought,  of  Cicero  as  a  writer, 
emphasizing  this  content  above  style,  no  matter  how 
inimitable  and  excellent  the  latter  might  be.  He  ad- 
vised the  "Ciceronians,"  as  his  imitators  were  then 
beginning  to  be  called,  to  correlate  the  study  of  ''na- 


THE  RENAISSANCE  175 

ture"  and  "history"  with  the  study  of  the  classics, 
as  means  to  ends. 

He  contributed  valuable  works  on  the  various  phases 
of  general  education,  proposing  courses  of  study  that 
made  for  piety,  learning,  moral  uplift,  and  good  man- 
ners, teachers  selected  for  their  personal  worth  and 
professional  fitness,  methods  of  study  whose  merits 
have  stood  the  test  of  later  pedagogy,  discipline  based 
on  love  and  common  sense  rather  than  on  force,  and 
the  education  of  girls  in  wholesome  and  natural  envi- 
ronment rather  than  in  convents.  Indeed,  if  the  same 
subjects  had  not  since  then  been  treated  in  still  fuller 
harmony  with  the  dictates  of  modern  psychology  and 
Christian  ideahsm,  we  should  hardly  find  it  necessary 
to  look  elsewhere  than  to  Erasmus  for  our  professional 
training  as  teachers. 

ENGLAND 

The  earliest  patron  of  humanism  in  England  was 
Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester.  Through  his  efforts 
younger  humanists  were  brought  from  Italy  to  trans- 
late the  classics,  and  Italian  masters  who  would  not 
come  north  were  remunerated  for  help  rendered.  He 
also  managed  to  give  Greek  and  Latin  books  and 
manuscripts  to  Oxford,  where  he  himself  had  been  a 
student. 

Oxford. — As  a  result  of  Humphrey's  endeavors, 
Oxford  students  began  to  visit  Italy  by  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  but  near  its  close  (1488)  three 
Oxford  men,  Grocyn,  Linacre,  and  Latimer,  devoted 
friends,  went  to  Florence  to  study  Greek,  and  returned 
to  England  determined  to  introduce  Greek  in  their 
homeland.     How  much   this   determination   was  due 


176  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

to  the  religious  ideas  of  Savonarola,  the  atmosphere 
of  whose  spirit  filled  Florence  at  the  time,  we  do  not 
know. 

Grocyn. — Grocyn  (1442-15 19)  was  fortunate  enough 
to  become  the  first  lecturer  on  Greek  at  Oxford,  where 
he  found  Duke  Humphrey's  contribution  of  books 
most  helpful.  Grocyn  also  began  to  ally  Greek  with 
the  study  of  the  Bible  and  thus  was  a  forerunner  of  the 
larger  movement  that  resulted  in  the  Reformation. 

Linacre. — Linacre  (1460-1524)  who,  like  Grocyn, 
had  given  much  attention  to  the  classics,  rhetoric,  and 
logic,  while  in  Italy,  became  interested  in  Aristotle, 
and  thus  concluded  to  take  a  course  in  natural  science 
and  medicine  at  Padua,  where  he  also  lectured.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  lectured  on  medicine  at  Ox- 
ford, but  gave  some  of  his  time  to  teaching  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  helped  Grocyn  train  Erasmus,  More,  and 
Colet.     Erasmus,  as  noted,  could  not  praise  him  enough. 

Cambridge. — Bishop  Fisher,  who  had  become  Chan- 
cellor, encouraged  Erasmus,  professor  of  divinity 
(15 10-15 14),  to  lecture  on  Greek  just  as  "a  labor  of 
love."  In  1 5 14  Sir  John  Cheke  succeeded  to  a  new 
professorship  of  Greek  in  the  university.  Like  Grocyn 
at  Oxford,  he  allied  Greek  with  the  interpretation  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  was  especially  interested  in 
Matthew's  Gospel. 

Roger  Ascham  succeeded  Cheke  in  151 5,  when  the 
latter  became  tutor  to  Prince  Edward.  Four  years 
later  Ascham  became  tutor  in  Greek  and  Latin  to 
Princess  Elizabeth.  In  his  "Scholemaster,"  written 
to  prove  that  the  cruel  discipline  then  prevalent  could 
be  cured  by  better  teaching,  Ascham  offered  the  method 
of  "double  translation"  in  the  study  of  the  classics. 


THE  RENAISSANCE  177 

According  to  this  plan  the  student  was  to  translate  his 
Latin  lesson  into  English,  and  an  hour  later  back  into 
Latin,  which  was  then  to  be  compared  by  the  master 
with  the  original. 

Henry  VIII,  through  the  influence  of  More  and 
Wolsey,  became  the  first  patron  of  humanism  at  the 
court. 

Probably  the  most  far-reaching  impulse  was  given 
to  humanism  in  English,  and  thus  to  American  educa- 
tion, by  Dean  Colet  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  The 
school  which  he  established  allied  the  classics  with 
religion  and  morals,  and  became  the  type  of  simJlar 
schools  into  which  the  Reformation  converted  numer- 
ous monasteries,  as  well  as  of  new  foundations. 

Influence. — In  the  north,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
Renaissance  lost  its  extreme  individualism  and  be- 
came the  most  active  ally  of  religious  reform  and  moral 
uplift,  and  thus  contributed  powerfully  to  the  Reforma- 
tion of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Unfortunately,  as  we  shall  discover,  this  northern 
humanism  became  as  despotic  in  content  and  as  me- 
chanical in  method  as  scholasticism  before  it,  and  thus 
had  to  be  reformed  itself  in  course  of  time. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  Lord's  "Beacon  Lights  of  History." 

3.  Adams'  "Civilization  of  the  Middle  Ages." 

4.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

5.  Monroe's  "Text-Book  in  the  History  of  Education." 

6.  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  II. 

7.  Parker's  "History  of  Education." 

8.  Reeves'  "Petrarch." 

9.  Mrs.  Oliphant's  "Dante." 

10.  Leclerc's  "Life  of  Erasmus." 


178  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  Renaissance?  Explain  its  causes  and  spirit 
pretty  fully. 

2.  Distinguish  humanism  from  its  associated  art  revival. 

3.  Explain  the  special  causes  of  the  revival  of  learning  in 
Italy. 

4.  Account  for  the  "making"  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boc- 
caccio, and  then  explain  the  contributions  of  each  one  to  the 
cause  of  learning. 

5.  In  what  favor  was  Greek  held  in  the  Middle  Ages?  How 
did  it  begin  to  come  into  favor? 

6.  How  did  Chrysoloras  become  the  great  missionary  of 
Greek  humanism  in  Italy,  and  what  did  he  accompHsh? 

7.  Who  was  Vittorino?  Trace  his  career  up  to  the  time 
when  he  was  called  to  Mantua.  Account  for  his  call,  and  de- 
scribe the  purpose,  courses,  methods,  and  worth  of  his  court 
school  at  Mantua. 

8.  When  did  the  Italian  Renaissance  reach  its  high  tide? 
Explain  fully. 

g.  How  did  the  Italian  court  schools  leaven  the  universities 
with  humanism? 

ID.  What  were  the  relations  between  Italian  humanism  and 
Christian  faith?     Illustrate. 

11.  From  what  high  organic  perfections  to  what  mechanical 
leanness  did  Italian  humanism  finally  sink? 

12.  Account  for  the  spread  of  humanism  north  of  the  Alps. 

13.  How  early  did  Paris  become  interested  in  the  Renaissance? 
Describe  the  services  which  French  kings  rendered  to  the  cause. 

14.  Describe  the  work  and  influence  of  the  college  of  Guyenne. 

15.  Account  for  the  arrival  of  humanism  in  Germany. 

16.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  "Brethren  of  the  Common 
Life,"  and  their  work  before  they  became  the  champions  of 
humanism? 

17.  Describe  the  course  which  they  offered  afterward,  together 
with  their  great  success.  What  was  their  effect  on  the  univer- 
sities of  Germany?     What  great  leaders  did  they  produce? 

18.  Account  for  "the  making"  of  Agricola,  and  his  call  to 
Antwerp.  What  was  the  outcome?  What  was  the  worth  of 
his  advice? 


THE  RENAISSANCE  179 

19.  Account  for  the  making  of  Reuchlin,  and  describe  the  vast 
services  which  he  rendered  the  cause  of  education,  not  overlook- 
ing the  result  of  his  controversy. 

20.  Account  for  the  making  of  Erasmus,  describe  his  varied 
career,  and  the  great  services  which  he  rendered  to  the  cause  of 
the  Reformation  and  education. 

21.  Account  for  the  arrival  of  humanism  in  England.  Ex- 
plain the  connections  of  Grocyn  and  Linacre  with  Oxford,  and 
place  some  estimate  upon  the  value  of  their  services. 

22.  How  did  humanism  reach  Cambridge,  and  through  whom 
was  it  promoted  there? 

23.  Describe  the  part  played  by  Cheke,  Ascham,  Colet,  and 
Henry  VIII  in  the  history  of  education. 

24.  Place  some  value  on  northern  humanism,  and  follow  it 
to  its  decline. 


PART  HI 

THE   REFORMATION 

CHAPTER   XH 
THE  REFORMATION 

Modifying  impulses  attached  themselves  to  the 
Renaissance  north  of  the  Alps,  and  helped  to  produce 
the  Reformation. 

Causes. — Northern  temper,  with  its  religious  and 
moral  impulses,  induced  the  northern  humanists  to 
use  the  knowledge  of  the  dead  languages,  rather  than 
Aristotelian  logic,  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  In  this  way  these  scholarly  humanists, 
especially  in  the  University  of  Paris,  long  the  centre 
of  theological  study,  but  elsewhere  also,  presently  dis- 
covered what  to  them  looked  like  unpardonable  in- 
consistencies in  the  life  of  the  clergy  and  people,  and 
in  the  traditions  of  the  church  as  an  institution.  This 
feeling,  as  we  have  seen,  was  conspicuously  true  of 
men  like  Erasmus,  who,  without  a  thought  of  revolt 
from  the  church,  worked  earnestly  for  reform  from 
within. 

The  French  Waldenses,  the  English  Wycliffites,  and 
the  Bohemian  Hussites  had  really  arrived  at  similar 
conclusions  of  protest  long  before  the  humanists. 
PoUtical  and  social  conditions,  together  with  the  ar- 
rival on  the  scene  of  men  like  Luther,  men  of  pro- 
found convictions  and  heroic  cast,  hastened  the  crisis. 

The  daring  freedom  of  thought,  so  characteristic  of 

180 


THE  REFORMATION  181 

the  Renaissance  from  the  very  beginning,  and  present 
in  all  these  discoveries  of  error  and  evil  in  the  church, 
developed  at  length,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  into 
open  protest  and  revolution — the  Reformation  had 
fully  come. 

Nature. — In  its  most  exalted  aspects  the  Reforma- 
tion was  the  Renaissance  ennobled  by  religious  and 
moral  impulse.  These  impulses  rescued  individualism 
from  the  paganistic  nature-worship  and  self-indulgence 
with  which  it  was  bound  up  so  largely  in  Italy,  and  to 
which  Vittorino  da  Feltre  was  so  notable  an  exception. 
In  the  Reformation  human  reason  became  still  more 
aggressive  than  in  humanism,  growing  more  fully  con- 
scious of  its  power  to  solve  some  of  the  greatest  prob- 
lems of  life — life  here  and  life  hereafter.  The  convic- 
tion that  the  soul  is  responsible  to  God  and  man  for 
the  use  which  it  makes  of  reason  in  the  solution  of  these 
problems  allied  itself  with  intense  resentment  against 
all  institutional  repression  and  all  traditions,  whether 
in  church  or  state,  which  tended  to  hinder  freedom  of 
thought  or  freedom  of  action.  This  aggressiveness, 
however,  did  not  prevent  reason  from  submitting  with 
profound  reverence  to  the  Holy  Scriptures,  rather  than 
to  the  decrees  of  councils  or  the  edicts  of  popes,  as  a 
final  court  of  appeal  in  matters  of  faith  and  life,  and 
it  went  so  far  as  to  make,  not  the  church,  but  the  in- 
dividual, responsible  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  To  this  end  the  Bible  was  to  be  given  to 
the  masses  in  the  languages  which  they  speak,  and 
this  task  was  greatly  faciHtated  by  the  activity  of  the 
printing-press. 

Influence. — In  thus  exalting  the  intrinsic  worth  of 
the  individual — his  right  to  think  for  himself  in  matters 


182  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

of  salvation  and  morality — his  personal  responsibility 
to  the  future  as  well  as  to  the  present — the  Reforma- 
tion "opened  a  door"  which,  although  Protestantism 
has  not  always  kept  open  more  effectively  than  Catholi- 
cism, can  never  again  be  completely  closed.  As  means 
to  ends,  education  became  the  powerful  essential  of 
the  whole  movement,  and  the  heir  of  all  its  values. 

LUTHER 

The  first  great  character  of  the  Reformation  was 
Martin  Luther  (1483-1546).  In  him  all  the  ennobling 
impulses  and  aspirations  which  produced  the  movement 
found  their  greatest  exponent.* 

In  the  Making. — Luther,  born  at  Eisleben,  was  the 
son  of  a  Saxon  German,  a  poor  miner.  "He  was 
brought  up  in  an  atmosphere  of  deeply  earnest  but 
austere  piety.  His  early  school-days  at  Mansfield 
were  darkened  by  harsh  discipline  and  cruel  methods 
of  instruction.  Destined  to  a  learned  career,  he  was 
sent,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  to  the  school  at  Magde- 
burg conducted  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life, 
and  a  year  later  he  was  removed  to  the  school  at  Eisen- 
ach, presided  over  by  John  Trebonius,  a  learned  hu- 
manist and  celebrated  teacher.  Quick  of  comprehen- 
sion and  gifted  in  oratory,  he  excelled  all  his  fellow 
pupils.  He  continued  his  studies,  which  included 
logic,  rhetoric,  physics,  and  the  ancient  languages,  at 
the  University  of  Erfurt,  and  broadened  his  culture 
still  further  by  extensive  reading,  especially  in  the 
scholastic  philosophy.  It  was  in  the  library  of  the 
university  that  Luther  one  day  discovered  a  Bible,  a 

*  Carlyle's  "  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship,"  pp.  195-196. 


THE  REFORMATION  183 

copy  of  which,  though  in  his  twentieth  year,  he  had 
never  seen."* 

A  deep  sense  of  sin,  due  in  part  to  native  temper, 
but  certainly  also  to  his  bringing  up  and  the  influence 
of  the  "Brethren,"  together  with  the  tragic  loss  of  his 
friend  Alexis  at  the  Erfurt  gate,  induced  him,  con- 
trary to  the  wishes  of  his  father,  who  hoped  he  would 
study  law,  to  enter  the  cloister  of  the  Augustinian 
monks  at  Erfurt.  Here,  in  order  to  find  the  soul- 
peace  for  which  he  longed  so  profoundly,  but  which 
his  religion  of  works  and  penances  had  failed  to  bring 
him,  "he  studied  the  Bible  with  such  energy  and  suc- 
cess that  he  could  at  once  refer  to  any  passage  in  it." 
His  soul-agony  drove  him  ever  deeper  into  the  very 
heart  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  until,  at  length,  in  his 
conclusion,  based  upon  his  study,  and  the  coun- 
sels of  a  pious  friend,  that  salvation  comes  not 
by  works  which  man  can  do,  but  by  the  grace  of 
God  in  Christ,  he  found  the  peace  of  soul  which  he 
sought. 

This  belief  in  justification  by  faith,  with  all  its  logical 
corollaries,  made  it  a  matter  of  conscience,  no  less 
than  of  reason,  even  if  it  required  heroic  courage,  to 
protest  against  all  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  church 
that  were  out  of  harmony  with  such  faith,  and  which 
he  therefore  blamed  for  the  shameful  spiritual  laxity 
of  his  age.  Taking  the  writings  of  Augustine  as  a 
basis,  he  organized  his  conclusions  into  a  logical  system, 
which  he  began  to  teach  and  defend  with  great  vigor. 
He  was  now  (1508)  appointed  professor  of  theology  in 
the  newly  founded  University  of  Wittenberg,  where, 
in  order  to  prove  his  positions,  he  attacked  Aristotle 

*  Painter's  "Luther  on  Education,"  chap.  V. 


184  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  the  schoolmen  with  great  power,  appealing  to 
primitive  Christianity  and  the  right  of  free  thought. 

The  climax  in  the  making  of  the  great  reformer  was 
approaching.  Several  events  hastened  the  crisis. 
Among  them  was  a  commissioned  journey  to  Rome 
which  opened  his  eyes  to  conditions  that  fairly  stag- 
gered him.  An  official  visitation  to  Meissen  and 
Thuringia  added  to  his  grief.  Finally,  when  Tetzel 
invaded  his  parish  with  his  "indulgences"  the  cup  of 
Luther's  woe  was  full,  and  he  nailed  the  memorable 
"ninety-five  theses"  on  the  door  of  the  castle  church 
at  Wittenberg,  and  thus  (15 17)  challenged  the  learned 
class,  in  the  usual  way,  to  a  great  debate.  The  "die 
was  cast,"  and  after  his  contest  with  Eck,  Luther  found 
himself  irrevocably  committed  against  the  church  as 
custodian  of  the  Holy  Book,  and  thus  became  the  cham- 
pion of  the  "open  Bible,"  which  he  loved  because  it 
brought  him  peace,  and  he  wished  mankind  to  find 
what  he  had  found. 

Luther's  Services  to  Education. — Luther  saw,  as 
we  see  to-day,  that  an  open  Bible  would  conserve  the 
rights  of  the  individual  to  think  for  himself  in  those 
matters  which  are  of  the  highest  personal  importance, 
and  that  superior  reason  and  superior  conscience, 
touched  by  the  divine  in  this  open  book,  would  adjust 
all  essential  claims  of  the  individual,  not  only  with 
the  just  demands  of  the  social  whole,  but  also  with 
the  claims  of  God,  placing  God's  claims  above  all 
others  in  these  adjustments. 

Paganism,  being  without  a  "revelation,"  had  never 
succeeded  in  making  these  adjustments;  and  the 
Christian  Church,  in  her  zeal  to  curb  the  extreme  in- 
dividualism of  Graeco-Roman  paganism,  had  gradually,    ^ 


THE   REFORMATION  185 

on  becoming  the  sole  custodian  of  education  (529), 
arrogated  to  herself  all  rights  of  interpretation.  She 
accomplished  this  by  refusing  to  give  the  Bible  to  the 
laity  in  living  languages,  thus  compelling  both  reason 
and  conscience  to  submit  to  prescriptions,  until  she 
had  defeated  the  very  ends  of  Christ's  coming.  Luther, 
catching  the  Master's  spirit  anew,  was  the  first  to  rebel 
against  these  prescriptions  successfully,  and,  by  giv- 
ing the  people  the  open  book,  and  thus  adjusting  all 
rightful  claims  to  each  other,  he  ushered  in  the  modern 
ages. 

Luther  hoped  to  accomplish  his  educational  ideals 
through  a  reorganized  church  and  state,  co-operating 
with  each  other  and  with  the  home.  All  his  educa- 
tional activities  and  ideas  command  profound  atten- 
tion, and  serve  as  ideals  to-day. 

Writings. — Luther  frequently  referred  to  education 
from  the  pulpit,  in  his  letters,  and  in  his  addresses,  but 
the  contributions  which  give  him  such  a  high  rank  as 
an  educator  are  his  translation  of  the  Bible,  his  cate- 
chisms, his  appeal  to  the  cities,  and  his  sermon  on  the 
duty  of  sending  children  to  school. 

He  translated  the  New  Testament  into  German  at 
Wartburg,  where  in  152 1,  after  his  memorable  trial 
at  Worms,  powerful  friends  secreted  him  for  his  per- 
sonal safety;  and  he  completed  his  translation  of  the 
Bible  in  1534.  He  did  this  to  get  it  before  the  masses, 
using  their  simple  and  expressive  vocabulary  with  such 
marvellous  selection  and  correctness  of  expression 
that,  in  a  few  years — thanks  to  the  printing-press — 
nearly  half  a  million  copies  were  in  circulation,  and 
this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  were  other  German 
translations  extant.     Here  was  an  educational,  as  well 


186  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

as  literary,  achievement,  whose  worth  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  It  produced  the  common  schools  of 
Germany,  for  if  the  masses  are  to  read  the  Bible,  and 
thus  think  for  themselves,  they  must  of  course  learn  to 
read,  and  Luther  soon  persuaded  the  Protestant  con- 
gregations and  princes  to  establish  such  schools.  That 
this  purpose  was  in  his  mind  in  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  appears  from  the  fact  that  his  friend  and  admirer, 
John  Bugenhagen  (1485-1558),  who  reorganized  the 
churches  in  the  cities  and  the  states  of  northern  Ger- 
many, ordered,  as  early  as  1520,  as  at  Hamburg,  in 
every  parish,  not  only  a  Latin  school,  but  also  a  Ger- 
man school  for  boys  and  one  for  girls. 

In  1524  Luther  wrote  his  celebrated  "Letter  to  the 
Mayors  and  Aldermen  of  All  Cities  in  Behalf  of  Chris- 
tian Schools."  It  bore  fruit  at  once,  for  the  following 
year  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Count  of  Mansfield 
to  found  a  model  German  school  at  Eisleben.  This 
was  done  by  Luther's  coworker,  Melanchthon.  It 
was  out  of  these  separate  foundations  by  churches  and 
rulers  that  the  present  "  Volksschulen "  of  Germany 
developed  in  course  of  time. 

In  his  parish  visitations  Luther  found  the  people 
exceedingly  ignorant,  and  therefore  in  1529,  to  bring 
Bible  study  within  the  scope  of  their  understanding, 
and  to  help  them  interpret  it  when  he  should  translate 
it,  he  produced  two  German  catechisms,  one  for  chil- 
dren and  the  other  for  adults,  thus  in  effect  organizing 
the  home  into  a  catechetical  school  and  furnishing  the 
schools  a  suitable  summary  of  religious  instruction. 

In  1535,  the  year  after  he  had  completed  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible,  he  wrote  his  celebrated  "Sermon  on 
the  Duty  of  Sending  Children  to  School."     This  pro- 


THE  REFORMATION  187 

duction,  like  his  "Letter  to  the  Mayors,"  is  an  extended 
treatise  on  education,  in  which  he  touched  with  a  mas- 
ter-hand on  practically  all  the  great  subjects  of  school 
organization,  educational  purposes,  suitable  courses, 
teachers,  methods,  discipline. 

Ideas. — Experience  had  early  convinced  Luther,  as 
in  harmony  with  all  we  know  about  the  man  we  might 
have  expected,  that  education  based  on  the  Bible  was 
the  surest  safeguard  of  the  high  and  holy  interests  of 
the  home,  the  church,  and  the  state,  and,  inasmuch  as 
they  were  all  beneficiaries,  they  were  to  be  Jointly  held 
responsible  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
schools,  together  with  the  training  and  employment  of 
teachers.  On  this  point  he  said:  ''Even  if  there  were 
no  soul,  and  men  did  not  need  schools  .  .  ,  for  the 
sake  of  Christianity,  .  .  .  society,  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  civil  order  and  the  proper  regulation  of  the 
household,  needs  accomplished  and  well-trained  men 
and  women." 

Luther  saw,  as  we  do  to-day,  how  greatly  the  wel- 
fare of  church  and  state  depends  upon  our  homes. 
Accordingly  he  advocated  that  education  should  begin 
at  home  through  elementary  instruction  in  the  cate- 
chism, which  instruction  by  the  parents  he  had  made 
possible,  and  for  which  he  held  them  sacredly  respon- 
sible. On  this  point  he  says:  "No  one  should  become 
a  father  unless  he  is  able  to  instruct  his  children  in  the 
Ten  Commandments  and  the  Gospel."  He  loved 
music,  and  encouraged  the  singing  of  hymns  in  the 
home  circle. 

Recognizing  that  most  parents,  much  as  they  rfiight 
wish  to  serve  the  church  and  state,  were  not  in  position 
to  do  so,  especially  since  they  were  not  professionally 


188  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

trained,  he  proposed  German  schools  for  both  boys  and 
girls,  where,  as  we  have  seen  at  Hamburg  and  Eisleben, 
in  connection  with  instruction  in  the  catechism,  other 
studies  such  as  singing,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
history,  physical  culture,  and  even  "nature"  should 
be  taken  up  under  trained  teachers.  "We  see  indeed 
how  it  goes  with  this  teaching  and  training,"  said  he 
in  a  passage  addressed  to  parents  who  thought  they 
could  teach  their  own  sons  and  daughters. 

While  Luther  did  not  advocate  long  school  hours, 
seeing  that  these  might  encroach  too  seriously  upon 
the  home  life  and  occupational  pursuits,  he  was  so 
thoroughly  convinced  about  the  importance  of  educa- 
tion to  both  church  and  state  that  he  insisted  on 
compulsory  attendance.  He  said:  " If  the  government 
can  compel  such  citizens  as  are  fit  for  military  services 
...  to  perform  martial  duties,"  it  ought  "to  compel 
the  people  to  send  their  children  to  school,  because  in 
this  case  we  are  warring  with  the  devil,"  and  because 
"Those  that  enjoy  the  privileges  of  a  country  are  to 
contribute  toward  everything  that  the  common  in- 
terests of  the  country  require." 

Luther  esteemed  the  office  of  teaching  very  highly, 
asserting  that  if  he  were  not  a  minister  of  the  gospel 
he  would  like  to  be  a  teacher,  and  calling  attention  to 
the  fact  that  in  many  respects  the  teacher  has  the 
advantage,  seeing  that  children  can  be  shaped  for  good 
while  adults  are  often  past  shaping.  "It  is  hard," 
said  he,  "to  make  old  dogs  docile  and  old  rogues  pious, 
yet  that  is  what  the  ministry  works  at;  but  young 
trees,  though  some  may  break  in  pieces,  are  more 
easily  bent  and  trained." 

To  Luther  the  personality  and  professional  equipment 


THE  REFORMATION  189 

of  the  teacher  were  things  of  inestimable  value.  Such 
a  teacher,  said  he,  "can  never  be  sufficiently  recom- 
pensed." He  was  particularly  concerned  about  the 
happiness  of  school  children,  and  while,  because  edu- 
cation is  so  important  to  the  home,  the  church,  and 
the  state,  he  insisted  on  "thoroughness,"  "he  sought 
to  adapt  instruction  to  the  capacity  of  children,  to 
make  learning  pleasant,  to  awaken  mind  through  skil- 
ful questioning,  to  study  things  as  well  as  words,  and 
to  temper  discipline  with  love."  * 

In  addition  to  the  German  schools,  meant  for  "the 
people,"  Luther  advocated  a  more  academic  course 
for  "the  brightest  pupils,  who  give  promise  of  becom- 
ing teachers,  preachers,  and  workers."  These  high 
schools,  as  we  might  call  them,  true  to  the  humanistic 
spirit  of  the  age,  were  to  be  conducted  in  Latin,  and  the 
curriculum  was  to  include  civics,  gymnastics,  and 
mathematics  for  the  state,  as  well  as  "nature,"  history, 
music,  and  the  Scriptures  for  the  sake  of  the  church. 

Nor  was  Luther  in  any  way  insensible  to  the  direct 
service  of  humanism  to  the  Reformation,  for  he  saw 
that  the  "dead  languages"  constituted  an  indispensable 
key  to  the  thorough  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  the 
Church  Fathers,  not  to  speak  of  their  worth  to  other 
great  professions,  such  as  the  law  and  medicine,  and 
therefore  proposed  that  for  leadership  in  both  church 
and  state,  universities  must  be  maintained,  and  that 
the  curriculum  should  include  the  highest  possible 
training  in  philosophy  as  the  handmaid  of  theology. 
Nevertheless,  he  realized  that  when  reason  and  faith 
seem  to  conflict,  the  Holy  Scriptures,  rather  than  reason 

*  Luther's  "Letter  to  the  Mayors"  and  "Sermon  on  the  Duty  of 
Sending  Children  to  School." 


190  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

in  the  scholastic  sense,  must  be  the  final  court  of  appeal. 
This,  as  we  recall,  was  the  attitude  which  he  assumed 
in  his  famous  trial  at  Worms,  and  from  which  position 
he  never  swerved. 

Luther  was  fully  "modern"  in  his  advocacy  of  "li- 
braries," where,  for  the  preservation  of  "learning," 
and  for  purposes  of  correlation  with  institutional  edu- 
cation, as  well  as  for  general  information,  not  only  the 
Bible  in  the  original  languages  should  be  accessible, 
but  where  the  necessary  commentaries,  together  with 
general  reference  works,  and  literary  masters,  should 
be  placed.  Pressed  to  their  full  import,  these  recom- 
mendations looked  forward  to  modern  public  libraries. 

Estimate. — We  are  told  that  Luther  at  times  used 
intemperate  language  and  resorted  to  severity.  This 
was  no  doubt  true,  nor  should  we  be  surprised.  The 
sin  and  shame  of  his  age  was  enough  to  provoke  a  saint 
to  righteous  wrath,  and  the  opposition  which  "prin- 
cipalities and  powers,"  of  whom  better  things  were  to 
be  expected,  brought  to  bear  upon  him  on  account  of 
the  advanced  views  which  he  championed,  were  enough 
to  unman  a  superman. 

In  his  riper  years,  due  to  the  Peasants'  War  and  other 
excesses  committed  by  some  of  his  followers,  he  re- 
ceded from  the  extreme  Renaissance  position  which  he 
had  taken  on  the  question  of  "individual  reason,"  for 
he  recognized,  as  we  do  to-day,  that  even  superior  in- 
dividuality may  err  irreparably. 

The  services  which  Luther  and  his  noble  contem- 
poraries rendered  to  the  cause  of  human  freedom  in 
religion  and  morality,  in  science  and  philosophy,  as 
well  as  in  social  and  civic  life,  may  not  prevent  future 
perils,  as,  alas,  it  has  not  done  completely  even  in  the 


THE  REFORMATION  191 

house  of  its  birth,  but  the  abject  serfdom  from  which 
they  rescued  liberty  will  probably  never  again  become 
possible. 

MELANCHTHON 

The  one  man  through  whom,  next  to  Luther,  the 
Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  contributed  most 
directly  to  education  was  Philip  Melanchthon  (1497- 
1560). 

In  the  Making. — Philip  Schwarzerd  (black  earth), 
known  best  by  his  humanistic  Greek  name  "  Me- 
lanchthon," was  the  son  of  an  armorer,  and  was  born 
at  Bretten,  in  Baden,  Germany.  At  the  age  of  ten  he 
was  left  an  orphan,  whereupon  his  grandmother,  a 
sister  of  Reuchlin,  took  him.  The  great  German  hu- 
manist liked  the  boy  very  much,  and  encouraged  him 
in  his  studies.  Thus  he  was  able  to  enter  college.  He 
was  graduated  from  Heidelberg  University  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  and  soon  afterward  became  tutor  to  the  son 
of  a  German  count,  but  continued  his  studies,  especially 
Greek,  so  industriously  at  Tubingen,  where  he  first  came 
upon  Erasmus's  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  that  in 
1 5 14,  when  only  seventeen  years  old,  he  was  given  the 
degree  of  "Master  of  Arts."  He  now  began  to  lecture 
on  Cicero,  Terence,  and  Greek  grammar,  but  devoted 
himself  with  great  power  to  the  further  study  of  hu- 
manism, together  with  theology,  jurisprudence,  and 
medicine.  His  lectures  began  to  attract  much  atten- 
tion, and  in  15 18,  when  only  twenty-one  years  old,  he 
was  called  to  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  through 
Reuchlin's  influence,  as  professor  of  Greek.  Me- 
lanchthon's  inaugural  address  made  a  wonderful  im- 
pression.    Luther,    v/ho    was    then   professor  of    phi- 


192  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

losophy,  and  to  whom  the  young  professor  had  been 
introduced,  now  forgot  that  the  new  professor  was  so 
youthful  and  so  small  of  stature,  and,  captivated  by  his 
learning  and  his  eloquence,  took  him  right  into  his  heart. 
The  great  Erasmus  was  as  much  pleased  as  Luther. 
From  that  time  on  Melanchthon  became  the  "ally  of 
Luther"  and  the  "Prajceptor  Germaniae." 

Educational  Services. — Melanchthon  would  without 
doubt  have  contributed  much  to  higher  education  by 
his  own  initiative,  but  as  coworker  and  complement 
of  Luther  he  helped  to  make  Wittenberg  an  educa- 
tional centre  from  which  radiated  influence  that  may 
touch  the  ends  of  the  world  and  the  ends  of  time. 

As  Professor. — Melanchthon  was  deeply  interested 
in  the  personal  welfare  of  students.  "He  welcomed 
them  to  his  home  and  gave  them  individual  encourage- 
ment and  aid."  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  open  a 
private  school  for  the  special  benefit  of  students  who 
came  to  Wittenberg  without  adequate  preparation. 
In  this  preparatory  school  he  gave  the  ancient  languages 
his  special  attention,  but  also  offered  courses  in  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  mathematics. 

Attracted  by  his  learning,  eloquence,  and  charming 
personality,  thousands  of  students,  from  all  parts  of 
Europe,  came  to  Wittenberg  to  hear  his  lectures  on 
the  gospel  and  the  ancient  learning.  He  remained 
at  Wittenberg  forty-two  years,  and  thus  the  time  came 
when  there  was  scarcely  a  school  of  any  importance 
in  Germany  that  did  not  number  one  or  more  of  his 
pupils  among  its  teachers.  The  most  distinguished 
teachers  of  the  age,  like  Neander  and  Trotzendorf, 
were  his  pupils,  or  like  Sturm,  drew  upon  him  for  coun- 
sel.    In   1536,   through  his  influence,   the   university 


THE  REFORMATION  193 

v/as  remodelled  so  as  to  embody  the  best  fruits  of 
humanism  and  the  Reformation,  and  the  new  univer- 
sities which  sprang  up  in  Europe  presently,  followed 
the  lead  of  Wittenberg.  Thus  it  came  about  that 
"  when  a  prince  needed  a  professor  for  his  university, 
or  a  city  a  rector  for  its  schools,  Melanchthon  was 
consulted,"  and  one  of  his  pupils  selected  for  the  place. 

As  Writer  of  Books. — Melanchthon  began  his  career 
as  a  writer  at  Tubingen,  where  at  the  age  of  nineteen 
he  published  an  edition  of  Terence,  and  soon  afterward 
a  Greek  grammar  that  attracted  much  attention,  and 
in  1522  a  Latin  grammar  that  was  used  very  exten- 
sively. He  wrote  admirable  text-books  on  rhetoric, 
logic,  ethics,  and  other  subjects,  and  published  charm- 
ing editions  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics.  His  two 
immortal  works  were  the  "Loci  Communes,"  in  which 
(15  21)  he  gave  the  theology  of  the  Reformation  its 
first  systematic  expression,  and  the  "Saxony  School 
Plan,"  in  which  (1528)  he  gave  the  composite  educa- 
tional idealism  resulting  from  the  fusion  of  the  Reforma- 
tion with  the  Renaissance  its  first  and  powerfully  effec- 
tive expression.  To  this  book  we  must  pay  our  special 
respects. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  1525  Melanchthon, 
through  Luther's  influence,  and  the  Count  of  Mans- 
field's behest,  organized  a  school  for  the  boys  and 
girls  of  Eisleben.  In  the  same  spirit  the  Elector  of 
Saxony  requested  Melanchthon  in  1528  to  organize 
the  schools  of  the  state  of  Saxony.  After  visiting  the 
schools  of  Saxony,  to  learn  what  reforms  were  neces- 
sary, he  formulated  a  "plan"  which  provided  every 
town  and  village  of  Saxony  with  a  school  in  which  all 
instruction  should  be  given  in  Latin.     To  correct  the 


194  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

wretched  pedagogy  which  he  found  to  be  so  prevalent, 
he  reduced  the  number  of  studies  and  books,  and  or- 
ganized the  pupils  into  three  grades.  In  the  first 
grade  reading,  writing,  and  singing  should  be  taught 
in  connection  with  religion.  In  the  second  grade 
Latin  grammar  and  Latin  authors  should  be  taught 
in  connection  with  more  advanced  instruction  in  re- 
ligion and  singing.  The  third  grade  should  master 
Latin  grammar,  in  connection  with  difficult  Latin 
authors,  adding  rhetoric  and  logic.  Only  teachers  of 
character,  professionally  qualified  for  the  work,  were 
to  be  tolerated.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  "Saxony 
School  Plan"  was  really  a  high-school  plan,  and  that 
Melanchthon  in  formulating  it  was  controlled  by  hu- 
manism and  the  Reformation,  fused  into  three  ideals, 
namely,  the  desire  to  know  what  the  ancients  knew, 
the  desire  to  speak  their  languages  with  skill,  or  elo- 
quence, and  the  desire  to  be  pious.  This  Saxony  plan 
for  town  and  village  schools  was  widely  copied,  and, 
although  greatly  enriched  in  content,  produced  the 
"gymnasiums,"  or  .secondary  schools,  of  Germany, 
France,  England,  America.  Sturm  and  other  great 
teachers  in  Germany,  Calvin  at  Geneva,  Ascham  in 
England,  together  with  the  Jesuits  in  Catholic  Europe, 
gave  these  Latin  high  schools  a  very  complete  devel- 
opment. Somewhat  modified  in  the  course  of  cen- 
turies, they  survive  as  the  solid  "middle"  of  education 
all  through  the  world. 

As  an  Adviser. — Just  as  Luther  was  a  mighty  im- 
petus to  education  for  the  masses,  so  Melanchthon  was 
to  higher  education.  His  reputation  for  learning,  the 
zeal  with  which  he  applied  himself  to  its  diffusion  as 
a  college  professor  and  writer,  together  with  the  fact 


THE  REFORMATION  195 

that  in  the  "Saxony  School  Plan"  he  had  given  success- 
ful expression  to  the  desires  of  the  age  as  it  was  pro- 
duced by  humanism  fused  with  the  Reformation,  ap- 
pealed powerfully  to  the  rulers  and  cities  of  Germany, 
waking  up  in  thern  the  desire  for  secondary  education 
and  attracting  them  irresistibly  to  him  for  advice  and 
assistance.  Some  fifty  cities,  as  we  know  from  corre- 
spondence on  record,  asked  him  for  assistance  in  found- 
ing Latin  schools,  like  those  of  Saxony,  so  that  he  is 
justly  called  the  "father"  of  the  German  secondary 
schools,  though  Sturm  after  him  gave  them  greater 
content  and  better  correlation,  "In  many  cases  he 
wrote  the  basis  of  organization,  laid  out  the  course  of 
study,  and  nominated  the  principal  instructors.  The 
gymnasial  course  of  instruction  recommended  by 
Melanchthon,  which  included  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
rhetoric,  logic,  mathematics,  and  cosmology,  remained 
essentially  unchanged  in  Germany  till  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century."* 

Melanchthon's  influence  on  German  universities  as 
institutions,  as  well  as  on  the  courses  of  instruction 
offered,  entitles  him  still  more  completely  to  the  title 
of  "preceptor  of  Germany."  It  was  he  who  "pre- 
pared the  statutes  by  which  the  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wittenberg  was  reorganized  "  to  fuse  higher 
humanism  with  the  Reformation.  Tubingen,  Leipzig, 
and  Heidelberg  adopted  his  plans  of  reorganization, 
and  so  did  the  new  universities,  Konigsberg,  founded 
1544,  and  Jena,  founded  1548. 

*  Painter. 


196  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

OTHER  REFORMERS 

The  other  great  religious  reformers  of  the  sixteenth 
century  who  made  the  extension  of  educational  facili- 
ties a  part  of  their  reforms  were  Zwingli,  Calvin,  and 
Knox. 

ZWINGLI 

The  celebrated  Swiss  reformer  Ulrich  Zwingli  (1484- 
1531)  was  a  contemporary  of  Luther.  He  was  the 
son  of  an  influential  citizen  of  Wildhaus,  who  was  able 
to  give  him  a  fine  education.  He  studied  philosophy 
and  theology,  and,  through  the  influence  of  Erasmus, 
became  deeply  interested  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
their  interpretation  through  the  languages,  thus  arriv- 
ing at  conclusions  very  like  those  of  the  German  re- 
formers. In  1 519  he  became  the  cathedral  preacher 
at  Zurich,  where,  like  Luther,  under  conditions  almost 
the  same,  he  introduced  the  Reformation,  and  with 
it  those  educational  facilities  for  which  such  reformation 
called. 

"He  founded  a  number  of  humanistic  institutions 
and  introduced  elementary  schools  into  Switzerland. 
In  1523  he  published  in  Latin  his  *  Brief  Treatise  on 
the  Christian  Education  of  Youth,'  which  he  trans- 
lated into  the  Swiss  dialect  the  following  year,"  the 
year  in  which  Luther  addressed  his  celebrated  "Letter 
to  the  Mayors  of  the  German  Cities."  As  a  religious 
reformer  Zwingli  gave  religious  instruction,  including 
singing,  the  foremost  place  in  this  treatise;  advocated 
the  study  of  "nature"  in  connection  with  the  Scrip- 
tures; looked  with  much  favor  upon  Hebrew  and  Greek 
as  means  in   higher   education;    and   was   eminently 


THE  REFORMATION  197 

practical  when,  with  his  rugged  country  in  mind,  he 
recommended  not  only  arithmetic  and  surveying,  but 
also  physical  culture  of  a  high  order  and  a  trade.  In 
all  these  recommendations  Zwingli  reminds  us  power- 
fully of  Luther. 

Zwingli  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Cappel  in  the  prime 
of  life,  and  his  movement,  full  of  promise,  was  merged 
into  that  of  Calvin. 

CALVIN 

John  Calvin  (Jean  Caulvin,  or  Cauvin)  was  born  in 
Picardy,  France,  in  1509,  and  died  at  Geneva,  Swit- 
zerland, 1564.  Though  of  humble  origin,  he  had  a 
good  and  beautiful  mother,  and  a  father  who  was  very 
ambitious  for  the  boy.  It  was  the  father's  wish  that 
his  promising  "Jean"  should  be  a  priest,  and  so,  after 
a  thorough  preparation  by  Corderius,  the  famous  hu- 
manist under  whom  he  began  to  study  grammar  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  sent  to  Paris,  and  later  to 
Montaign,  where  a  learned  Spaniard  taught  him  logic. 
In  the  meantime  his  father,  perhaps  because  he  had 
come  to  see  that  the  boy  had  a  "legal"  mind,  had  him 
take  a  course  in  law  at  Orleans.  Here  Wolmar,  the 
German  professor  under  whom  he  found  time  to 
study  Greek,  influenced  him  powerfully  in  favor  of  the 
"new  faith"  with  which  the  boy's  kinsman,  Olivetan, 
who  was  the  first  to  translate  the  Bible  into  French, 
had  imbued  him.  We  are  not  surprised,  therefore, 
that  when  his  father  died,  he  returned  to  Paris  to 
study  theology,  which  was  his  greater  passion — 
especially  now  that  a  "bright  light,"  as  he  said,  had 
come  into  his  life. 

But  young  Calvin  was  unconsciously  approaching 


198  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

another  crisis.  In  1533,  when  he  was  only  twenty- 
four  years  old,  a  friend  of  his,  Nicholas  Cop,  had  been 
elected  to  the  rectorship  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
At  Cop's  request,  Calvin  prepared  for  him  an  inaugu- 
ral address,  which  was  to  all  intents  a  defense  of  the 
Reformation.  For  this  attempt  he  was  obliged  to  flee 
from  Paris,  and  found  his  way  to  Basel,  Switzerland, 
where,  in  1535,  only  twenty-six  years  old,  he  pub- 
lished his  famous  "Institutes,"  a  powerful  work  on 
theology,  whose  foundation-thought  was  the  sover- 
eignty of  God. 

On  his  return  from  a  secret  visit  to  Picardy  he 
stopped  at  Geneva  for  the  night.  Here,  where  the 
people  had  just  wrested  all  power  from  the  Duke  of 
Savoy,  the  Reformation  was  producing  an  ecclesias- 
tical revolution.  Farel,  who  was  in  charge  of  the 
Protestant  movement,  learned  by  accident  that  Cal- 
vin was  in  the  city,  and,  securing  an  interview  with 
him,  persuaded  him,  after  much  serious  pleading,  to 
assume  charge  of  the  situation.  Such  was  his  organ- 
izing genius  that  the  new  movement  gained  the  ascen- 
dancy, but  the  stringent  regulations  with  which  he 
began  his  work  of  moral  reformation  offended  the 
"Libertines,"  through  whose  influence  heflost  his  hold, 
and  was  expelled.  He  fled  to  Strasburg,  where,  "with 
a  sense  of  relief,"  he  gave  himself  up  more  completely 
than  ever  to  his  favorite  study  of  theology;  but  the 
Genevan  authorities  finding  him  indispensable  induced 
him  to  return  and  assume  control  of  the  religious, 
moral,  and  civil  administration  of  the  city. 

Educational  Services.^ — It  was  in  immediate  connec- 
tion with  this  mission  of  city  reformer  that  Calvin 
felt   obliged    to   organize   educational   facilities.     The 


THE   REFORMATION  199 

foundations  had  already  been  suggested  by  Zwingli, 
with  whose  work,  as  well  as  with  that  of  Melanchthon 
and  Sturm,  he  must  have  been  familiar,  and  he  planned 
secondary  schools,  or  gymnasiums,  which  he  called 
"colleges"  (1538-1541),  and  persuaded  his  old  teacher 
Corderius  to  come  from  Paris  to  help  him  in  the  work. 
It  is  from  Corderius  that  we  gather  the  main  features 
of  these  "colleges."  They  were  preparatory  schools, 
in  which  Latin  and  Greek  classics  were  taught,  together 
with  the  trivium,  religion,  and  singing,  and  the  stu- 
dents were  graded  into  seven  classes.  It  was  Cal- 
vin's hope  to  educate  promising  young  men  for  leader- 
ship in  the  church  and  state,  and  therefore  without 
the  wish  to  injure  the  more  practical  recommendations 
of  Zwingli,  he  added  a  university  to  his  colleges  (1559) 
as  a  completing  process,  and  called  it  the  "Academic" 
of  Geneva.  He  served  the  cause  himself  as  teacher 
and  professor,  lecturing  to  thousands  of  students. 

The  one  fact  which  gave  Calvin  a  much  bigger 
school  than  Switzerland  was  that  Geneva  had  through 
him  become  the  "house  of  refuge"  for  Protestant 
exiles  from  everywhere,  who  in  turn  took  not  only  his 
religion  but  also  his  educational  ideals  back  with  them 
into  the  Netherlands,  France,  Germany,  England,  and 
from  these  countries  to  America. 

JOHN   KNOX 

John  Knox  (1505-1572),  the  great  Scotch  interpreter 
of  Calvinism,  an  exile  at  home  in  Geneva  two  years, 
wrested  educational  control  from  its  bondage  to  feu- 
dalism, ecclesiasticism,  and  royalty,  and  vested  it  in 
"parishes,"  thus  founding  free  elementary  schools  in 


200  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Scotland.  These  schools  were  to  provide  boys  and  girls 
primarily  with  an  education  in  reading,  writing,  and 
religion,  with  the  Bible  as  the  text,  but  the  masters 
were  mostly  university  graduates,  and  this  made  it 
possible  for  boys  of  humble  origin  to  reach  the  univer- 
sity and  through  it  the  highest  positions  in  church  and 
life. 

ULTIMATE   ADJUSTMENTS 

The  dominant  motive  of  the  Reformation,  as  we 
have  seen,  was  to  give  the  masses,  as  well  as  the  classes, 
an  "open  Bible"  for  religious  and  moral  reasons.  This 
privilege,  based  as  it  was  upon  the  essential  rights  of 
the  individual,  carried  with  it  the  promise  as  well  as 
the  duty  of  other  educational  opportunity,  having 
civic  relations  and  livelihood  in  view.  The  appeal  of 
Luther  to  the  mayors,  and  the  efforts  of  the  other  re- 
formers to  organize  such  opportunities,  is  in  direct  line 
with  these  convictions,  and  thus  elementary  schools 
for  both  boys  and  girls  became  an  early  reality.  This 
result  was  hastened  by  the  fact  that  the  Reformation, 
in  itself  an  educational  stimulus,  became  additionally 
stimulating,  when  through  its  great  interpreters  it 
broke  its  adherents  up  into  denominations. 

Elementary  Schools. — The  individual  rights  and 
responsibilities  for  which  the  Reformation  stood,  com- 
mitted the  movement  from  its  very  inception  to  the 
establishment  of  such  educational  facilities  as  served 
the  ends  in  view.  In  other  words,  the  new  movement 
included  recommendations  and  provisions  for  ele- 
mentary schools  not  only  in  the  cities  and  towns,  but 
also  in  the  country  districts.  The  "church  orders" 
which,  through  Luther's  inspiration,  Bugenhagen  began 


THE  REFORMATION  201 

to  send  out  to  the  Protestant  cities  and  states  as  early 
as  1520,  provided  not  only  for  a  Latin  school,  as  at 
Hamburg,  but  also  for  a  German  school  and  a  school 
for  girls  in  every  "parish."  In  1524,  through  Luther's 
"Letter,"  Magdeburg  united  its  parish  schools  under 
one  management  and  adopted  the  Protestant  ideals. 

Through  Melanchthon  Luther  established  similar 
schools  at  Eisleben  in  1525  and  for  the  state  of  Sax- 
ony in  1528.  Duke  Christopher  adopted  a  modifica- 
tion of  Melanchthon's  Saxony  plan,  and  in  1559  estab- 
lished schools  for  the  religious  and  moral  training  of 
the  children  of  the  common  folk  in  every  village  of 
the  Wiirtemberg  duchy.  Ten  years  later  Brunswick, 
and  soon  afterward  Saxony,  made  new  rules  and  regu- 
lations to  improve  their  school  systems.  Other  Ger- 
man states  followed  suit,  estabhshing  elementary 
schools  before  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Wherever  the  Reformation  found  foothold  elementary 
schools  accompanied  the  movement.  Denmark,  for 
example,  adopted  the  Hamburg  plan  as  early  as  1537. 
As  already  stated,  similar  results  followed  Calvinism 
into  the  Netherlands,  Scotland,  France,  and  else- 
where. 

In  England  the  Reformation,  owing  to  Henry  VIII, 
failed  to  produce  the  same  results  until  the  Puritans 
took  up  the  cause  of  the  common  man.  In  1536 
Henry  VIII,  in  order  to  destroy  the  last  vestiges  of 
the  power  that  had  balked  him  in  his  wickedness, 
began  to  confiscate  monastic  lands  and  property. 
Within  a  decade  he  suppressed  over  six  hundred  mon- 
asteries and  other  educational  facilities.  And  Edward 
VI,  as  Leach  shows  in  his  "English  Schools  at  the 
Reformation,"  was  hardly  a  better  patron  of  schools 


202  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

than  his  father.  Nevertheless,  remnants  of  elementary 
as  wcjl  as  secondary  education,  coming  down  from  the 
Middle  Ages,  survived  the  devastations  of  Henry  and 
his  son,  and  rallied  into  new  life  as  proteges  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  the  Puritans,  in  the  time  of 
Eli2iabeth  and  the  Stuarts. 

Character  of  Elementary  Schools. — Although,  as  Lu- 
ther maintained,  the  civil  authorities  should  share  the 
responsibilities  of  establishing  schools  and  supplying 
teachers,  the  Reformation  found  it  difficult  to  supply 
trained  teachers  rapidly  enough.  The  supervision  of 
the  schools  was  usually  intrusted  to  the  parish  minister, 
on  whose  judgment  the  selection  of  teachers  commonly 
depended.  Even  sextons  were  thus  sometimes  em- 
ployed. And  for  this  reason — to  which  we  must  add 
denominational  bias — the  elementary  schools  of  the 
sixteenth  and  later  centuries,  especially  in  the  villages 
and  country  districts,  were  anything  but  ideal. 

While  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  were  included 
in  the  course  of  study,  the  stress  was  laid  on  religious 
instruction  through  denominational  catechisms,  to- 
gether with  denominational  hymns  and  sacred  songs. 
Lack  of  pedagogical  training  compelled  the  teachers 
to  rely  on  the  memory  of  the  learner  more  than  upon 
his  understanding,  and  this,  of  course,  in  direct  viola- 
tion of  the  rights  of  individual  judgment  which  the 
Reformation  undertook  to  champion  in  education. 
As  is  always  the  case  where  memory  is  required  to 
perform  tasks  which  only  reasoning  can  perform,  so 
in  these  elementary  schools  of  the  Reformation  the 
discipline  was  frequently  harsh  and  barbarous.  "The 
purpose  was  to  tame,  not  to  educate  the  pupils,"  says 
Dittes  in  his  description  of  these  schools. 


THE  REFORMATION  203 

Schools  for  Girls. — Through  its  numerous  ''church 
orders"  the  German  Reformation  early  made  special 
provisions  for  the  education  of  girls.  Separate  schools, 
over  which  qualified  women  should  preside,  were  to 
be  established  and  maintained  at  public  cost.  The 
range  of  subjects,  as  the  "school  order"  of  Bruns,wick 
(1548)  shows,  was  narrow  enough,  but  better  things 
would  come  in  course  of  time.  The  curriculum  for 
town  and  village  schools  was  to  include  reading  and 
writing,  together  with  the  catechism  and  the  singing 
of  hymns.  Bible  stories  were  to  be  read  at  home  and 
told  from  memory  at  school.  The  school-day  was  to 
consist  of  two  hours  in  the  forenoon  and  two  in  the 
afternoon,  and  regular  attendance  was  encouraged. 
The  worthy  matron  who  presided  over  a  town  school 
was  to  be  paid  the  enormous  sum  of  thirty  florins  a 
year,  and,  if  the  town  could  afford  it,  she  was  to  have 
an  assistant  at  twenty  florins.*  This  "school  order" 
of  Brunswick  gives  us  some  idea  of  what  was  to  be 
undertaken  in  schools  for  girls,  not  only  throughout 
Germany,  but  in  the  other  countries  of  the  Reformation. 

Secondary  Schools. — The  Reformation  found  it 
difficult  to  supply  the  church  and  the  world  with  lead- 
ers. This  difficulty  gave  rise  to  denominational  sec- 
ondary schools  and  universities. 

Gymnasiums. — The  Latin  schools  founded  by  Me- 
lanchthon,  Zwingli,  and  Calvin,  and  their  followers, 
have  already  been  noticed.  Out  of  these,  by  enrich- 
ment of  curriculum  and  perfection  in  system,  grew  the 
great  "central"  schools  of  modern  Europe,  the  "gym- 
nasiums," into  which  also  the  Hieronymian  schools 
and  the  "princes'"  schools  were  eventually  merged. 

*  Painter's  "History  of  Education,"  p.  17S. 


204  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

''These  schools,"  as  Doctor  Painter  says,  "  were  founded 
in  large  numbers  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  some 
of  them,  especially  in  England,  have  continued  to  the 
present  day.  In  Germany,  Camerarius  established  a 
flourishing  school  at  Nuremberg  (1526),  Trotzendorf 
at  Goldberg  (1531),  Sturm  at  Strasburg  (1538),  and 
Neander  at  Ilfeld  (1543).  These  distinguished  school 
directors  were  all  more  or  less  influenced  by  Melanch- 
thon,  with  whom  they  had  maintained  cordial  rela- 
tions as  pupils  or  friends.  Academic  gymnasia,  which 
occupied  a  middle  ground  between  the  Latin  schools 
and  universities,  and  were  provided  especially  for  such 
students  as  were  too  young  to  enter  upon  the  freedom 
and  dangers  of  university  life,  were  founded  at  Danzig, 
Hamburg,  Bremen,  Zurich,  and  elsewhere.  In  Eng- 
land the  great  'public'  schools  of  Shrewsbury  (1551), 
Westminster  (1560),  Merchant  Taylors'  (1561),  Rugby 
(1567),  and  Harrow  (1571)  were  established."  Inas- 
much as  Sturm  at  Strasburg  and  Loyola  in  the  Jesuit 
schools  represent  these  movements  most  typically, 
they  deserve  special  treatment. 

Princes'  Schools. — Protestant  rulers  either  sup- 
pressed the  monastic  or  secondary  church  schools,  as 
Henry  VIII  of  England  began  to  do  in  1536,  or  secular- 
ized them,  as  in  Germany  and  elsewhere.  In  1543 
Duke  Mauritz  of  Saxony,  in  order  to  fit  the  more 
brilliant  sons  of  native  citizens  at  public  expense  for 
the  university,  and  thus  for  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
leadership,  opened  such  a  school  in  each  of  two  cities, 
and  later  on  in  other  cities.  ^  Although  these  schools 
never  became  very  numerous,  other  rulers  of  German 
states  followed  the  lead  of  Saxony.  These  "princes' 
schools" — Fiirstenschulen,  or  Klosterschulen,  as  they 


THE   REFORMATION  205 

were  called  in  Germany — were  boarding-schools,  under 
court  control,  and  resembled  the  "court  schools"  of 
Italy  in  general  aim  and  course  of  study. 

The  education  of  princes  and  princesses,  as  in  the 
case  of  Prince  Edward  of  England  and  his  sister 
Elizabeth,  was  of  course  conducted  by  special  instruc- 
tors. Inasmuch  as  the  prince  might  some  day  be 
king,  and  thus  attain  to  great  power  in  matters  of  re- 
ligion, he  was  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  distinctive  doc- 
trines of  that  denomination  to  which  he  belonged, 
whether  it  happened  to  be  Catholic,  Lutheran,  or  Cal- 
vinistic.  Nor  did  this  denominational  bias  disappear 
rapidly.  Doctor  Painter's  description  of  the  daily 
routine  of  George  III  of  Saxony,  who  was  born  in  1647, 
may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  princely  education.  ''At 
seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  he  arose  with  a  brief 
prayer.  While  he  was  being  dressed  the  attendants 
sang  a  hymn;  then  with  the  court  he  went  to  morn- 
ing prayers;  afterward  he  retired  to  his  apartment  for 
private  worship,  or  on  days  of  preaching  to  the  church. 
Then  followed  two  hours  of  study,  which  began  with 
a  brief  prayer  for  divine  assistance  and  concluded  with 
a  psalm  of  thanksgiving.  The  hour  from  ten  to  eleven 
was  devoted  to  recreation.  After  dinner  several  hours 
were  devoted  again  to  study,  including  instruction  in 
dancing.  From  five  to  six  recreation  and  supper; 
at  eight  prayer  with  the  whole  court,  after  which  the 
prince  withdrew  to  his  apartment,  and  after  private 
worship,  retired  promptly  at  nine  o'clock." 


206  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

STURM 

Though  not  himself  a  reformer,  John  Sturm  was  a 
contemporary  of  the  great  reformers  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  eminently  the  product  of  the  age. 

In  the  Making. — Johann  Sturm  (i 507-1 589)  was 
born  at  Schleiden,  in  the  Eifel  district  of  western  Ger- 
many. As  a  boy  he  went  to  school  with  the  children 
of  a  count,  and  was  afterward  sent  to  Liege  to  the  school 
of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life.  What  he  car- 
ried away  from  Liege  prepared  him  more  than  any- 
thing else  for  the  task  to  which  Strasburg  presently 
invited  him.  In  the  meantime,  not  even  dreaming  of 
the  great  opportunity  which  was  awaiting  him,  he 
studied  and  lectured  both  at  Louvain  and  Paris.  In 
1536  tJie  city  of  Stra&burg,  having  in  mind  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  gymnasium,  invited  Sturm  as  rector. 
After  a  thorough  study  of  the  situation,  during  which 
time  he  adopted  the  principles  of  the  Reformation 
through  Bucer,  with  whom  he  became  acquainted 
here,  he  recommended  (1538)  the  Liege  idea  on  a  larger 
scale,  as  a  city  proposition,  and  the  scheme  was 
adopted.  The  institution  which  was  thus  established, 
and  of  which  Sturm  remained  rector  for  about  forty- 
five  years,  embodied  the  ideals  of  the  age  more  com- 
pletely than  all  other  representatives,  and  therefore 
deserves  special  treatment. 

The  Strasburg  Gymnasium. — In  Sturm's  scheme  the 
means  to  the  ends  in  view  were  selected  with  aston- 
ishing singleness  of  purpose. 

Ends  in  View. — Sturm  voiced  the  highest  senti- 
ment of  his  age  when,  in  his  Strasburg  scheme,  in 
obedience  to  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  he  pro- 


THE  REFORMATION  207 

posed  to  produce  Christian  men,  and  when,  inspired 
by  the  purest  humanism,  he  also  proposed  to  repro- 
duce the  best  periods  of  Athens  and  Rome.  To  know 
what  the  ancients  knew,  to  speak  Ciceronian  Latin  as 
eloquently  as  Cicero  spoke  it,  and  Greek  as  Demos- 
thenes spoke  it,  and  to  be  pious  as  required  by  the 
Reformation  catechisms — these  were  the  high  aims  of 
Sturm.  He  gathered  up  these  aims  in  a  nutshell 
when  he  said:  *'A  wise  and  persuasive  piety  should  be 
the  aim  of  our  studies." 

Curriculum. — As  means  to  these  ends  Sturm  worked 
out  in  great  detail  a  classical  course  of  study,  en- 
nobled by  religious  instruction,  covering  about  ten 
years,  the  pupils  to  enter  upon  this  course  at  the  age 
of  six  or  seven.  The  classical  course — for  ''wisdom" 
and  "eloquence" — began  with  Latin  grammar.  Dur- 
ing the  four  years  of  drill  in  grammar,  the  pupil  was 
required  to  memorize  the  vocabulary  of  every-day  Hfe, 
and  to  read  dialogues  which  embodied  this  vocabulary, 
thus  preparing  him  gradually  for  the  translation  of 
Cicero  and  the  easier  Latin  poets.  In  the  fourth  year 
exercises  in  sentence  construction  were  begun,  and  to 
this  work  was  added  a  grammatical  and  literary  study 
of  Cicero,  Vergil,  Terence,  Plautus,  Sallust,  Horace, 
and  other  authors,  with  a  great  deal  of  practice  in 
letter-writing,  declamation,  disputation,  and  the  act- 
ing of  suitable  plays.  Greek  was  introduced  in  the 
fifth  year.  Three  years  of  hard  training  in  grammar 
paved  the  way  for  the  dramatists,  together  with 
Homer,  Demosthenes,  and  Thucydides.  Rhetoric  and 
logic  were  added  to  grammar  the  last  three  years. 
The  course  in  religion — for  "piety" — began  with  the 
study  of  the  Reformation  catechism  in   German  for 


208  HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION 

three  years,  and  in  Latin  for  three  years  longer.  In 
the  fourth  year  the  Sunday  Sermons  were  read,  and  in 
the  fifth  the  Letters  of  Jerome  were  added  to  these, 
while  the  Epistles  of  Paul  were  carefully  studied  from 
the  sixth  year  to  the  end  of  the  course.  Latin  as  the 
language  of  the  classroom  superseded  the  mother 
tongue  almost  from  the  beginning:  apart  from  a  Httle 
geometry  no  attention  was  paid  to  mathematics; 
apart  from  a  little  astronomy  no  attention  was  paid 
to  natural  science;  and  such  branches  as  geography 
and  history  were  not  even  mentioned. 

Methods. — According  to  Karl  Schmidt,  Sturm  in- 
troduced two  methods  of  studying  an  author:  "read- 
ing a  small  quantity  accurately,"  and  "getting  over  the 
ground."  From  his  "Classic  Letters"  of  instruction 
written  to  the  teachers  of  the  various  classes  in  the 
Strasburg  gymnasium  we  learn  that  Sturm  valued 
"thoroughness"  rather  than  "ground  covered,"  and 
that,  as  an  incentive  to  study,  he  advocated  corporal 
punishment.  He  took  frequent  counsel  with  his  teach- 
ers, and  insisted  upon  enthusiastic  fidelity. 

Success. — The  Strasburg  gymnasium  was  a  wonder- 
ful success.  "In  1578,"  to  quote  Raumer,  "the  school 
numbered  several  thousand  pupils,  among  them  about 
two  hundred  of  noble  birth,  twenty-four  counts  and 
barons,  and  three  princes.  Not  simply  from  Ger- 
many, but  from  the  most  different  countries,  from 
Portugal  and  Poland,  Denmark,  France,  and  England, 
youths  were  sent  to  Sturm."  Through  his  pupils,  and 
also  through  his  numerous  books  and  voluminous  corre- 
spondence, Sturm's  school  became  the  popular  model  for 
the  classical  schools,  not  only  of  his  own  time,  but  of 
several  centuries.     The  later  introduction  of  mathe- 


THE  REFORMATION  209 

matics,  modern  languages,  and  natural  sciences  has 
modified  the  curriculum  and  qualitative  character  of 
secondary  education,  not  only  in  Europe,  but  else- 
where. Nevertheless,  Sturm  may  certainly  be  con- 
sidered a  second  ''Prseceptor  Germaniae." 

Estimate. — With  Paroz,  who  refers  to  the  matter 
at  length,  and  with  others,  we  must  lament  this  influ- 
ence of  Sturm  on  secondary  education.  His  treatment 
of  the  German  language  at  a  time  when,  through 
Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible,  it  had  rapidly  be- 
come a  vigorous  and  powerful  vehicle  of  thought  and 
culture,  was  anything  but  wise  in  pedagogy.  This 
blunder,  and  the  exclusion  from  the  course  of  such 
useful  studies  as  geography,  history,  and  the  sciences, 
removed  his  school  too  far  from  daily  life,  and  the  vio- 
lent divorce  of  reason  from  memory  to  which  the 
sla\dsh  "drill"  of  such  a  course  reduces  study  is  sim- 
ply unpardonable. 

LOYOLA 

The  Reformation  became  a  powerful  stimulus  to 
education  in  the  "mother  church."  Able  men  like 
Erasmus,  as  we  have  seen,  had  spoken  in  no  uncertain 
tones,  urging  moral  reforms  through  education.  And 
now  that,  through  the  remissness  of  those  who  had 
become  the  sole  guardians  of  faith  and  morals,  the 
church  had  lost  her  absolute  authority  over  the  indi- 
vidual, every  eiTort  must  be  made  to  restore  this  au- 
thority and  to  save  the  church  from  similar  catastro- 
phes. Strange  to  say,  this  "new  movement"  within 
the  mother  church  did  not  begin  in  the  highest  counsel 
of  the  church,  but  in  the  mind  and  heart  of  devoted 


210  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

individuals.     Pre-eminent  among  these  self-appointed 
champions  of  "mother  church"  was  Loyola. 

In  the  Making.— Ignatius  Loyola  (1491-1556)  was 
a  knight  of  the  little  Spanish  kingdom  of  Navarre, 
and  a  contemporary  of  Luther.  He  had  been  trained 
for  the  profession  of  arms.  In  1521  Francis  I  invaded 
Navarre,  and  besieged  Pampeluna.  Here  Loyola  was 
severely  injured,  and  after  most  heroic  conduct,  he 
was  made  a  prisoner.  Released,  he  was  taken  to  his 
father's  castle,  where,  after  great  suffering,  he  slowly 
recovered.  This  was  the  crisis  in  his  life.  The  only 
books  which  he  found  to  relieve  the  tedium  of  his 
confinement  were  books  of  devotion  and  the  "Lives 
of  the  Saints."  This  course  of  reading  inspired  in 
him  the  desire  to  do  some  service  for  God  and  the 
church.  Presently,  through  bitter  disappointments, 
he  realized  that  little  could  be  accomplished  without 
an  education,  and  therefore,  although  he  was  now 
thirty- three  years  old,  he  entered  the  Barcelona  gram- 
mar-school, and  later  took  courses  in  the  universities 
of  Alcala  and  Salamanca.  In  1528  he  went  to  Paris 
to  continue  his  studies,  especially  in  theology,  and  re- 
mained there  seven  years.  In  1534  he  and  six  fellow- 
students,  among  them  the  celebrated  Francis  Xavier, 
took  the  vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  and 
solemnly  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  church 
and  the  conversion  of  infidels.  In  1540,  after  much 
opposition,  he  secured  the  pope's  partial  recognition 
of  his  order,  which  was  now  named  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  or  "Jesuits,"  and  of  which  he  became  "general" 
a  year  later.  Full  recognition  was  granted  in  1543, 
and  all  operations  were  henceforth  directed  from 
Rome  by  him  and  his  successors.*     Later  popes  added 

*  Americana,  vol.  IX. 


THE  REFORMATION  211 

all  sorts  of  privileges  regarding  such  matters  as  found- 
ing schools  and  serving  the  general  public,  and  the 
organization  has  continued  to  adjust  itself  to  the 
changing  requirements  of  nearly  three  centuries  with 
a  degree  of  success  that  challenges  admiration,  whatever 
else  we  may  think  of  the  fundamental  principles  in- 
volved. 

The  Jesuits. — The  military  setting  with  which  the 
career  of  Loyola  began  fitted  him  peculiarly  for  the 
task  which,  as  a  result  of  his  conversion,  he  believed 
to  be  his  great  mission.  This  mission,  as  already  in- 
timated, was  threefold,  namely,  to  restore  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  mother  church  over  the  individual  in  her 
care,  to  win  the  world  for  her  dominion,  and  to  combat 
Protestantism  because,  as  the  champion  of  individu- 
ality, it  threatened  to  defeat  these  ends.  While  other 
means  were,  of  course,  to  be  employed,  education  was 
to  be  the  chief  and  final  resort,  and  must  therefore  be 
planned  in  absolute  harmony  with  these  purposes. 

Organization. — Loyola  conceived  that  the  only  sys- 
tem of  education  which  would  serve  these  purposes — 
especially  that  of  obedience  on  the  part  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  the  church — must  rest  upon  a  military  foun- 
dation. Accordingly,  the  ''constitution"  of  the  "or- 
der," which  he  drafted,  but  which  was  not  published 
until  two  years  after  his  death,  and  of  which  Part 
Four,  relating  especially  to  a  detailed  administration 
of  schools,  was  not  finally  revised  until  1599,  when 
Aquiviva  was  general,  provided  for  a  most  effective 
gradation  of  supervising  officials  and  instructors.  At 
the  head  of  this  organization  was  a  "general,"  elected 
for  hfe,  who  as  the  vicar  of  God  in  the  "order"  was  to 
send   out  instructions  from   Rome,   and   whose  word 


212  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

was  to  be  final.  "Provincials,"  appointed  by  the  gen- 
eral for  three  years,  were  to  have  control  of  "districts," 
into  which  the  world  would  be  divided  by  the  growing 
society.  In  each  district  there  were  to  be,  besides 
other  institutions,  various  "colleges,"  and  men  known 
as  "rectors,"  appointed  by  the  general  but  responsible 
to  the  provincial,  were  to  be  the  presiding  officers. 
Under  the  rector  were  "prefects  of  studies,"  appointed 
by  the  provincial,  and  then  "professors,"  or  teachers, 
with  "monitors,"  or  assistants  chosen  from  among 
the  students.  This  original  organization  has  never 
been  seriously  modified. 

From  the  very  beginning  great  care  was  exercised 
in  the  selection  of  locations,  for,  in  order  to  make  in- 
struction practically  free  to  all  candidates  for  the 
"order,"  and  almost  free  to  other  students,  and  thus 
in  time  to  supply  teachers  enough  for  the  world, 
wealth  must  be  interested,  bequests  must  be  solicited, 
and  the  extensive  patronage  of  the  "better  classes" 
must  be  assured.  These  provisions,  in  which  they 
have  usually  succeeded,  helped  to  make  the  Jesuit 
schools  powerful  competitors  of  Protestant  schools, 
even  in  Protestant  territory. 

The  Jesuit  Colleges. — With  Plato  of  old  and  their 
philosophical  master,  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  Jesuits, 
as  we  have  seen,  discouraged  the  wholesale  emancipa- 
tion of  individuality,  and  therefore  never  established 
schools  for  the  masses,  but  confined  themselves  strictly 
to  the  training  of  leaders  selected  from  the  higher 
classes,  whose  superior  lead  the  masses  were  to  accept 
by  faith. 

Accordingly,  they  established  secondary  schools 
called  "lower  colleges,"  and  universities  called  "upper 


THE  REFORMATION  213 

colleges."  In  order  that  they  might  meet  the  demands 
of  the  age,  and  that  they  might  contend  successfully 
with  all  competitors,  they  organized  such  courses  as 
those  of  the  Hieronymians,  or  that  of  Sturm  at  Stras- 
burg,  to  whom  perhaps  they  owe  the  suggestion. 
The  first  years  were  devoted  almost  exclusively  to 
Latin  grammar,  religion,  and  singing,  and  then  the 
Latin  classics,  together  with  religion  and  singing,  were 
studied  three  more  years.  During  the  last  two  years 
the  grammatical  study  of  the  classics  was  enriched  by 
rhetoric  and  logic,  and  a  little  Greek.  Geography, 
history,  etc.,  were  taught  only  so  far  as  necessary  to 
the  understanding  of  the  classics.  This  classical  course 
has  come  down  almost  unchanged  to  the  present  day. 

The  "upper  colleges"  devoted  three  years  to  phi- 
losophy, with  Aristotle  as  master,  and  four  years  to 
theology,  with  Aquinas  as  master.  The  course  in  phi- 
losophy, which  with  rare  exceptions  was  required  for 
all  who  taught  in  the  "lower  colleges,"  included  such 
subjects  as  psychology,  ethics,  logic,  mathematics,  and 
the  natural  sciences,  leading  to  the  degree  of  "master 
of  arts."  The  course  in  theology,  which  was  required 
for  all  university  teachers,  and  which  was  generally 
open  only  to  those  who  had  taught  the  course  in  the 
"lower  colleges,"  included  not  only  theology  proper, 
but  also  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  languages,  church 
history,  canon  law,  and  electives,  and  led  to  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  divinity.  Even  law  and  medicine 
are  now  offered  by  the  Jesuit  universities,  in  courses 
leading  to  the  usual  degrees. 

Methods. — The  Jesuits  as  teachers,  highly  trained 
and  talented,  never  lost  sight  of  the  fundamental  pur- 
poses of  the  society,  and,  judged  by  the  success  with 


214  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

which  they  adapted  means  to  the  ends  in  view,  they 
have  probably  never  been  surpassed.  The  fundamental 
purposes  of  the  order  demanded  that  freedom  of 
thought,  original  investigation,  and  individuality  must 
be  outlawed.  It  must,  therefore,  become  the  great 
task  of  Jesuit  pedagogy  to  confine  reasoning  to  the 
■beaten  track,  and  this  task  was  accomplished  with 
startling  success  by  compelling  the  memory  to  work 
so  hard  that  reason  had  but  little  chance  to  assert  her 
claims. 

Accordingly,  the  learner  must  acquire  the  new  lesson 
not  through  text-books  and  private  study,  but  through 
oral  instruction  in  the  classroom.  A  new  lesson  in 
Cicero,  for  example,  began  with  the  oral  presentation 
of  the  sentences  to  be  studied.  When  the  lines  had 
been  committed  by  sufficient  repetition,  the  general 
meaning  of  the  lines  and  the  sentence  structure  was 
explained.  This  was  the  ** prelection."  Then  followed 
"erudition,"  which  consisted  of  reference  to  authori- 
ties, rhetoric,  and  moral  interpretations. 

Each  day's  work  began  with  a  "review"  of  the  work 
of  the  preceding  day,  and  closed  with  a  review  of  the 
work  just  mastered.  Each  week  ended  with  a  review 
of  all  the  work  of  the  week,  and  the  last  month  of  the 
year  was  devoted  to  the  review  of  all  the  work  of  the 
year. 

In  his  own  education  Loyola  had  learned  by  over- 
work how  serious  it  is  to  health  and  happiness  to  under- 
take too  much.  He  guarded  against  these  results  in 
his  "Ratio  Studiorum,"  by  advocating  few  studies, 
short  lessons,  short  school  hours,  and  physical  exercise. 

Perhaps  the  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  Jesuit 
pedagogy  was  the  extensive  resort  to  "rivalry"  as  a 


THE  REFORMATION  215 

stimulus  to  excellence  in  study  and  conduct.  The 
pupils  were  arranged  in  pairs  as  '* rivals,"  each  boy 
watching  the  other  to  catch  him  tripping,  and  then 
correcting  him.  In  addition  to  -the  pairing  process 
between  classmates,  the  class  was  divided  into  hostile 
camps,  called  Rome  and  Carthage,  for  frequent  pitched 
battles  of  questions  on  picked  subjects.  Then,  too, 
there  were  public  ''disputations"  every  week,  and 
prizes  were  awarded  by  judges.  Many  ingenious  de- 
vices for  rewards  and  penalties  were  systematically 
devised.  Very  creditable  work  led  to  honors,  while 
particularly  bad  work  led  to  disgrace.  This  highly 
organized  system  of  competitions  made  even  the 
hardest  tasks  of  memorizing  and  reviewing  almost  a 
pleasure. 

The  Jesuit  teachers  took  great  pains  to  prove  them- 
selves the  real  friends  of  boys,  devoting  themselves 
almost  to  the  point  of  self-effacement  to  this  duty. 
Accordingly,  they  considered  no  service  too  onerous, 
and  were  absolutely  approachable.  In  order  to  at- 
tach their  pupils  to  themselves  permanently,  the 
Jesuit  teachers  seldom  resorted  to  corporal  punish- 
ment, and  when  such  punishment  became  necessary, 
as  in  case  of  bad  conduct,  it  was  administered  by  out- 
side persons  called  "correctors." 

Popularity. — The  growth  of  the  Jesuit  schools,  as 
we  might  expect,  was  phenomenal.  When  Loyola 
died  there  were  a  hundred  "lower  colleges,"  and  rep- 
resentatives had  penetrated  India,  China,  Japan,  and 
Abyssinia,  as  well  as  Europe.  Under  Aquaviva  the 
number  of  colleges  and  universities  increased  very 
rapidly,  and  in  1710  the  order  had  over  six  hundred 
"lower  colleges,"  over  a  hundred  and  fifty  "upper  col- 


216  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

leges"  in  which  teachers  were  being  trained,  and  about 
twenty-five  "upper  colleges"  that  did  university  work. 
At  this  time  there  were  seldom  less  than  three  hundred 
students  in  any  school,  and  in  1675  the  college  of 
Clermont,  in  France,  had  three  thousand  students. 
Thus  it  came  about  that  the  Jesuits  helped  to  shape  an 
immense  number  of  men  who  became  famous  as  writers, 
statesmen,  generals,  etc. 

They,  however,  failed  to  adjust  themselves  to  the 
course  of  events  in  the  eighteenth  century,  lost  their 
efficiency,  and  deteriorated  into  a  political  machinery. 
Finally,  after  they  had  been  banished  from  nearly 
every  country  of  Europe,  the  pope  himself,  in  1773, 
suppressed  the  order.  The  order  was  restored  early 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  but,  although  they  still 
have  great  schools,  the  order  has  never  recovered  its 
former  importance. 

Estimate. — That  the  purposes  for  which  the  "or- 
der" was  organized  were  largely  accomplished  can- 
not be  denied;  but  the  ends  which  they  proposed  are 
only  doubtfully  justifiable,  and  in  the  additional  as- 
sumption that  "  the  end  justifies  the  means,"  the  Jesuits 
could  hardly  avoid  the  use  of  means  that  were  morally 
doubtful.  In  the  effort  to  mould  the  higher  classes 
to  their  purpose,  they  ignored  the  rights  of  the  masses. 
In  their  ascetic  ardor  they  closed  the  door  of  the 
school  to  woman,  and  ignored  her  possibilities. 

In  their  pedagogy  the  Jesuits  discouraged  individual 
initiative  and  thus  arrested  development.  The  length 
to  which  they  went  in  the  use  of  rivalry  as  a  stimulus 
often  led  to  bitterness,  and  exalted  success  above 
moral  honor.  In  short,  while  the  claims  of  God  were 
to  be  honored,  these  claims  often  degenerated  into  the 


THE  REFORMATION  ^  217 

ambitions  of  the  order,  and  the  rights  of  the  individual 
were  sacrificed  to  the  demands  of  institutional  control. 


THE   UNIVERSITIES 

The  universities  allied  themselves  with  the  denomi- 
nations which  the  Reformation  produced,  but  human- 
ism continued  to  give  content  to  the  curriculum,  and 
morals  suffered. 

Alliance. — Many  universities,  among  them  Paris, 
remained  loyal  to  Catholicism,  and  the  Reformation, 
acting  as  a  denominational  stimulus,  produced  a  num- 
ber of  new  adherents,  among  them  Dillingen  (1554), 
Gratz  (1586),  Paderborn  (1592),  Salzburg  (1622), 
Miinster  (1631),  and  several  others.  All  of  them 
recognized  the  church  as  their  overlord. 

In  the  states  of  Germany  which  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  Reforrijation,  the  majority  of  the  universities 
followed  the  princes  from  the  old  to  the  new.  Witten- 
berg, due  to  the  influence  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon, 
was  the  first  German  university  to  become  Protestant. 
This,  as  we  recall,  occurred  in  1536.  Marburg,  Konigs- 
berg,  Jena  (1557),  and  others  followed  rapidly.  Kiel 
was  founded  1665,  and  Halle  in  1694.  They  were 
Lutheran.  Among  the  universities  that  allied  them- 
selves with  Calvinistic  (Reformed)  Protestantism  were 
Geneva  (1558),  Herborn  (1654),  and  others.  The 
English  universities,  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  went  over 
to  Protestantism  with  the  nation.  Protestant  univer- 
sities very  generally  became  state  institutions. 

Courses. — Instruction  continued  under  four  faculties 
as  before,  namely,  philosophy,  theology,  law,  and 
medicine.     No  really  serious   attention  was  paid   to 


218  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

mathematics,  and  such  sciences  as  physics,  astronomy, 
and  natural  history  continued  to  acknowledge  Aris- 
totle, Ptolemy,  and  Pliny  as  masters.  Hippocrates  and 
Galen  remained  the  authorities  in  medicine.  History 
and  modern  tongues  were  almost  ignored,  and  even 
Greek  received  only  inferior  recognition.  "All  the 
time  and  strength  of  youth,"  as  Raumer  tells  us, 
"were  forcibly  concentrated  upon  the  learning  and  exer- 
cising of  Latin.  Grammar  was  studied  for  years  in 
order  to  learn  to  speak  and  write  Latin  correctly; 
dialectic,  in  order  to  use  it  logically;  and  rhetoric,  in 
order  to  handle  it  oratorically.  Facility  was  sought 
by  means  of  debate,  declamation,  and  representations 
of  Terence.  The  classics  were  read  in  order  to  collect 
words  and  phrases  from  them  for  speaking  and  writing, 
without  particular  concern  for  the  thought."  Thus  it 
is  seen  that  reason,  whose  high  and  holy  cause  both 
humanism  and  the  Reformation  had  championed, 
once  more  fell  back  into  slavery  and  formalism,  and 
this  not  only  in  the  Catholic  universities,  where  Jesuit 
influence  would  account  for  it,  but  also  in  Protestant 
universities. 

Morals. — The  denominations  which  the  Reformation 
produced,  moved  not  only  by  the  sense  of  duty,  but 
also  by  keen  competition,  wanted  teachers  and  leaders 
enough.  This  demand  crowded  the  universities  with 
students,  and  thus  produced  a  state  of  morals  that 
almost  staggers  imagination.  Hazing,  which  resorted 
to  barbarities  now  considered  criminal,  and  scandalous 
orgies  that  sometimes  ended  in  nothing  less  than  mur- 
der, were  all  too  common.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth   century,   as  Duke  Albrecht  of   Saxony* 

*  Painter,  p.  i86. 


THE  REFORMATION  219 

tells  us,  the  reputation  of  the  universities  had  already 
suffered  much,  and  the  authorities  began  to  look  about 
for  ways  and  means  to  end  the  disgrace.  Germany 
broke  up  the  custom  about  1660,  and  similar  action 
became  more  or  less  general,  thus  giving  rise  to  marked 
improvement  in  the  university  life  and  work, 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers*  "General  History." 

2.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

3.  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  Ill,  "Modern 
Times." 

4.  Parker's  "Modern  Elementary  Education." 

5.  Duggan's  "History  of  Education." 

6.  Lord's  "Beacon  Lights  of  History." 

7.  Guizot's  "History  of  Civilization." 

8.  Schwickerath's  "Jesuit  Education." 

9.  Mombert's  "  Great  Lives." 

10.  Quick's  "Educational  Reformers." 

11.  Hughes'  "Loyola." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Trace  the  course  of  the  Reformation  as  an  educational 
event. 

2.  Consider  Luther  in  the  making  as  fully  as  possible.  Why 
did  Luther  insist  on  an  "open  Bible"?  Compare  his  posi- 
tion with  that  of  paganism,  Romanism,  and  modern  Prussian- 
ism  as  an  educational  ideal.  How  were  his  writings  related  to 
the  ends  in  view  ?  Gather  up  Luther's  ideas  on  education,  and 
compare  each  with  present  ideas  on  the  same  subjects.  Esti- 
mate the  greatness  of  Luther  as  a  force  in  educational  progress. 

3.  What  was  there  in  his  training  and  personality  that  made 
Melanchthon  such  a  valuable  coworker  of  Luther?  In  what 
three  ways  did  Melanchthon  serve  the  cause  of  education? 
Explain  these  services  at  length. 

4.  Account  for  Zwingli  as  an  educational  reformer,  and  de- 
scribe his  services  to  the  cause  of  education. 


220  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

5.  Account  as  fully  as  possible  for  Calvin's  presence  at  Geneva, 
and  explain  his  services  to  the  cause  of  education. 

6.  Account  for  John  Knox  as  an  educational  reformer,  and 
describe  his  services  to  the  cause. 

7.  Give  the  fundamental  and  secondary  reasons  for  the 
stimulating  effect  which  the  Reformation  had  on  elementary 
education.  Trace  this  effect  in  Germany,  England,  and  else- 
where. Account  for  the  narrow  curriculum,  mechanical  methods, 
and  harsh  discipline  in  the  "country  schools." 

8.  Describe  the  education  which  the  Reformation  offered  to 
girls. 

9.  Why  did  the  Reformation  promote  interest  in  secondary 
education?     Describe  the  education  thus  planned  for  princes. 

10.  How  did  the  Reformation  help  to  produce  the  Latin 
schools  (gymnasiums)  ?  Trace  this  movement  in  several  coun- 
tries. 

11.  Account  for  Sturm's  humanism.  Describe  his  gymnasium 
as  a  system  of  means  to  ends.     Estimate  the  influence  of  Sturm. 

12.  How  did  Loyola  come  to  found  the  Jesuits?  Describe 
the  Jesuit  gymnasiums  and  the  Jesuit  colleges  as  a  system  of 
means  to  ends.  Describe  their  pedagogical  mistakes,  and  account 
for  their  career. 

13.  How  did  the  Reformation  affect  the  number,  course, 
and  morals  of  the  universities? 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  JANSENISTS,  THE  CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS,  AND 
THE  PIETISTS 

The  time  came  in  Europe — it  was  hastened  by  the 
misfortunes  and  the  sorrows  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
— when  thoughtful  men  of  every  creed  began  to  realize 
the  insufficiency  of  a  religion  that  did  not  satisfy  the 
heart  and  provide  life  with  powerful  motives  in  the 
service  of  God.  In  France  this  conviction  produced 
especially  the  teaching  orders  known  as  the  Jansenists 
and  the  Christian  Brothers,  while  in  Protestant  Ger- 
many it  produced  the  Pietists. 

Cornelius  Jansen  (158  5-1 638),  a  Dutch  professor  at 
the  University  of  Louvain,  and  later  Bishop  of  Ypres, 
had  made  a  profound  study  of  St.  Augustine,  and 
reached  conclusions  regarding  the  grace  of  God  some- 
what similar  to  those  of  Calvin.  Although  his  doc- 
trines fell  under  the  ban  of  the  church,  his  followers, 
like  the  bishop  himself,  remained  loyal  to  the  church. 
Men  of  prominence  and  ability  became  deeply  inter- 
ested, and  under  the  leadership  of  his  friend  the  Abb6 
de  St.  Cyran,  a  number  of  them  established  them- 
selves at  Port  Royal,  near  Versailles,  to  devote  them- 
selves to  various  ascetic  activities  through  which  they 
hoped  to  save  souls. 

The  Port  Royalists. — The  Port  Royal  Jansenists  felt 
that  the  corruption  to  which  flesh  was  heir  could  be 
eliminated,  and  the  number  of  the  elect  saved,  only 
by  religious  and  moral  watchfulness  against  the  wiles 

221 


222  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

of  the  devil.  In  1643,  Abb6  de  St.  Cyran,  moved  by 
this  profound  concern  for  souls,  laid  the  foundation 
of  schools  in  which  the  children  should  be  under 
supervision  day  and  night.  A  school  was  to  consist  of 
twenty-five  boys  or  less,  and  no  master  was  to  have 
personal  charge  of  more  than  five  or  six  pupils.  For 
this  reason,  and  also  to  keep  the  universities  from 
thinking  that,  like  the  Jesuits,  they  were  going  to  com- 
pete with  them,  the  Port  Royalists  called  themselves 
the  "little  schools."  Similar  arrangements  were  made 
for  girls,  who  were  placed  in  charge  of  women  of  rare 
and  beautiful  character.  Like  the  "Oratorians,"  an- 
other teaching  congregation  founded  in  161 1,  the  Port 
Royal  Jansenists  accepted  the  philosophy  of  Descartes, 
and  held  to  the  development  of  "reason,"  thus  coming 
into  early  conflict  with  the  Jesuits,  who,  as  we  have 
seen,  made  much  of  authority  and  routine.  The  re- 
sult was  that  in  1660,  after  an  existence  of  less  than 
a  quarter  of  a  century,  Louis  XIV,  instigated  by  the 
Jesuits,  suppressed  the  "little  schools,"  and  dispersed 
the  teachers,  thus,  as  Paroz  says,  robbing  France  of 
almost  two  centuries  of  progress. 

Definite  Purpose.  —  The  fundamental  purpose  of 
Jansenism,  as  already  stated,  was  to  fortify  the  bap- 
tized soul  against  the  wiles  of  the  devil.  This  purpose 
was  to  be  accomplished  by  inculcating  genuine  Chris- 
tian piety  as  the  only  sufficient  guarantee.  On  this 
point  St.  Cyran  himself  says:  "It  is  always  necessary 
to  be  on  guard  as  in  a  beleaguered  city.  The  devil 
makes  his  circuit  outside;  he  early  attacks  the  bap- 
tized; he  comes  to  reconnoitre  the  place;  if  the  Holy 
Spirit  does  not  fill  it,  he  will  fill  it." 

Closely  associated  with  the  fundamental  purpose  of 


THE  JANSENISTS  223 

Jansenism  was  that  of  developing  the  reason — "to 
carry  forward  intelligence,"  as  Nicole  puts  it;  "to 
impart  to  the  mind  a  love  and  discernment  of  truth; 
to  render  it  delicate  in  discovering  false  reasoning;  to 
let  it  not  be  put  off  with  obscure  words  and  principles, 
and  not  to  be  satisfied  until  the  foundations  are 
reached ;  to  render  it  subtle  in  seizing  the  point  in  com- 
plicated questions,  and  to  discover  what  is  relevant; 
to  fill  it  with  principles  of  truth  which  will  be  helpful 
in  finding  it  in  all  things." 

Curriculum. — Children  were  taken  at  nine  or  ten 
years  of  age  and  kept  through  the  difficult  years  of 
the  "teens'  if  possible.  "Up  to  the  age  of  twelve," 
we  are  told,  the  pupils  were  occupied  with  sacred 
history,  geography,  and  history,  under  the  form  of 
amusements,  in  a  manner  to  develop  their  intelligence 
without  wearying  it.  The  regular  course  of  study 
began  at  twelve  and  included  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics,  together  with  grammar,  rhetoric,  logic,  mathe- 
matics, and  the  Church  Fathers.  Physical  culture 
and  science  received  scant  notice.  Said  Nicole:  "The 
sciences  should  be  employed  only  as  an  instrument 
for  perfecting  the  reason." 

Methods. — In  order  to  carry  the  intellect  of  the  pupil 
to  the  highest  point,  the  Jansenists  avoided  the  dead- 
ening routine  of  the  Jesuits,  and  boldly  followed  reason. 
Accordingly  they  addressed  instruction  "first  to  the 
senses"  if  possible,  and  used  pictures.  Pascal  invented 
phonic  spelling.  The  first  schoolbooks  were  not  Latin, 
but  French  texts  prepared  by  the  Port  Royahsts  them- 
selves, and  excellent  expurgated  translations  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  classics,  through  which  the  learner 
was  introduced  to  the  thought  before  he  took  up  the 


224  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

form  or  language  of  the  classics.  In  this  way  they 
bravely  broke  away  from  bondage  to  the  past,  and 
paved  the  way  for  the  ultimate  use  of  the  mother 
tongue  in  secondary  schools.  Moreover,  as  disciples 
of  Descartes  in  psychology,  they  strove  to  adapt  in- 
struction to  the  pupil's  capacity,  thus  allying  them- 
selves with  Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  and  other  great  re- 
formers of  pedagogy.  Much  freedom  was  permitted 
in  study  and  the  conduct  of  recitations.  To  quote  an 
old  French  writer:  "If  study  sometimes  intrenched 
upon  recreation,  recreation  also  had  its  turn,  for  cir- 
cumstances were  taken  into  account.  In  winter,  when 
the  weather  permitted,  the  teacher  gave  his  lesson 
while  taking  a  walk.  Sometimes  they  left  him  to  climb 
a  hill  or  run  in  the  plain,  but  they  came  back  to  listen 
to  him.  In  summer  the  class  met  under  the  shade  of 
trees  by  the  side  of  brooks.  The  teacher  explained 
Vergil  and  Homer;  he  commented  upon  Cicero,  Aris- 
totle, Plato,  and  the  fathers  of  the  church.  The  ex- 
ample of  the  teachers,  their  conversation  and  familiar 
instruction,  all  that  the  pupil  saw,  all  that  he  heard, 
inspired  him  with  a  love  for  the  beautiful  and  the 
good." 

In  school  discipline  the  Port  Royalists,  contrary  to 
prevailing  custom,  but  in  line  with  their  rule  of  reason, 
relied  on  wholesome  admiration  of  the  teacher  rather 
than  on  force,  and  therefore  resolutely  rejected  cor- 
poral punishment  on  the  ground  that  it  hinders  moral 
growth  and  piety.  For  the  same  reason,  and  because 
the  only  true  rival  of  the  pupil  is  his  own  higher  self, 
they  condemned  the  emulation  and  prizes  so  sedulously 
cultivated  by  the  Jesuits.  St.  Cyran,  the  founder  of 
the  little  schools,  keeping  this  great  purpose  of  build- 


THE  JANSENISTS  225 

ing  character  for  time  and  eternity  in  mind,  went  to 
the  greatest  pain  to  secure  teachers  who  had  the  requi- 
site qualifications,  laying  special  stress  on  self-control, 
patience,  and  piety.  "Speak  little,"  said  he,  "put 
up  with  much,  and  pray  still  more" — a  most  admirable 
rule  for  any  teacher. 

Estimate. — It  is  probably  true,  as  has  been  said, 
that  the  atmosphere  of  excessive  piety  in  the  Port 
Royal  school  life  must  have  chilled  the  natural  spon- 
taneity of  childhood,  but  the  experiment  served  as  a 
protest  to  the  noise  and  commotion  so  prevalent  in  the 
schools  of  the  time.  We  are  told  that,  owing  to  the 
exclusion  of  rivalry,  the  Port  Royalists  were  "never 
able  to  secure  the  energy,  earnestness,  and  pleasing 
environment  of  the  Jesuits."  On  the  other  hand,  we 
know  that  they  escaped  the  deadening  formality  of 
routine,  and  thus  promoted  that  healthy  mental  growth 
which  must  always  be  the  pride  of  pedagogy. 

While  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  "little  schools" 
were  closed  too  soon  to  do  the  good  which  they  were 
meant  to  do,  it  was  probably  best  in  the  long  run,  for 
the  dispersed  teachers  turned  to  writing,  thus  spread- 
ing their  views,  and  in  the  long  run  giving  Port  Royal 
pedagogy  a  decided  ascendancy  over  that  of  the  Jesuits 
in  France,  an  ascendancy  which  continues.  Among  the 
writers  through  whose  books  their  ideas  live  are  Nicole, 
the  morahst  and  philosopher,  who  wrote  "The  Educa- 
tion of  a  Prince";  Lancelot,  the  grammarian,  who  wrote 
"Methods  of  Language  Study";  Arnauld,  a  great 
theologian,  who  wrote  text-books  on  grammar,  logic, 
geometry,  and  "The  Regulation  of  Studies  in  the 
Humanities";  Pascal,  a  literary  giant,  who  wrote  the 
"Provincial  Letters"  and  "Thoughts,"  most  terrible 


226  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

arraignments  of  the  Jesuits;  Fenelon,  who  wrote  "The 
Education  of  Girls,"  and  Rollin,  who  wrote  "Treatise 
on  Studies." 

FfNELON 

The  achievements  of  F6nelon  and  Rollin  embody 
the  spirit  of  Jansenism  in  education  most  completely, 
and  thus  deserve  special  attention. 

Frangois  de  Fenelon  (1651-1715)  was  of  noble  lineage. 
In  body  he  was  not  robust,  but  he  had  remarkable 
aptness  for  learning.  Through  the  watchful  care  of 
his  father,  and  later  of  the  Marquis  de  Fenelon,  his 
uncle,  he  was  able  to  enter  the  college  of  Cahors  at 
twelve  years  of  age,  and  then  the  University  of  Paris. 
It  was  the  wish  of  his  parents  that  he  should  study 
for  the  priesthood,  for  which  high  calling  he  was  fitted 
by  nature.  He  took  up  theology  at  St.  Sulpice,  and 
was  ordained  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  He  became  a 
famous  prelate,  but  in  the  meantime  served  the  cause 
of  education  as  teacher  and  writer. 

Teacher  of  Girls. — In  1678  the  church,  because  of 
his  special  fitness,  made  him  the  head  of  the  Convent 
of  New  Catholics,  an  institution  whose  purpose  it  was 
to  reclaim  young  women  to  Catholicism.  In  this 
position,  owing  largely  to  his  charming  personality 
and  good  judgment,  he  achieved  great  success,  remain- 
ing there  ten  years.  Almost  at  the  close  of  this  period, 
and  at  the  suggestion  of  some  friends  whom  he  thus 
hoped  to  help,  he  wrote  his  first  most  important  work, 
"The  Education  of  Girls."  Compayre  calls  it  "the 
first  classical  work  of  French  pedagogy." 

Ideas. — In  this  valuable  treatise  Fenelon  sets  forth 
in  a  very  systematic  way  the  Jansenistic  conception  of 


THE  JANSENISTS  227 

what  should  constitute  a  woman's  education.  Al- 
though he  assumed,  as  was  common  in  his  day,  that 
nature  had  excluded  women  from  the  sphere  of  politics, 
the  law,  the  ministry,  and  other  high  vocations  re- 
quiring sterner  qualities,  Fenelon  realized  with  keen 
perception  the  marvellous  capacity  of  women  for  good 
or  evil  in  the  world,  and  therefore  the  great  impor- 
tance of  an  adequate  education. 

The  infancy  of  girls  should  be  piously  guarded  in 
body,  mind,  and  character,  lest  their  own  future  be 
compromised  and  the  fabric  of  society  be  ruined.  He 
held  that  fiction  and  the  stage  produce  a  wandering 
imagination  and  an  emotional  tension  most  serious  to 
social  and  moral  welfare. 

In  order  to  save  girls  and  to  fit  them  for  the  high 
estate  to  which  God  was  calling  them,  they  were  to 
be  instructed  in  such  useful  branches  as  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  elementary  civics,  and  after 
that  in  history,  literature,  music,  painting,  and  the 
like,  but  always  in  such  a  way  as  to  guard  against 
moral  injury.  Religious  instruction  was  to  be  specially 
emphasized,  and  yet  not  in  such  a  way  as  to  "frighten 
her  from  piety  by  a  useless  severity." 
■  The  psychological  insight  of  Fenelon,  like  that  of 
his  fellow  Jansenists,  was  far  in  advance  of  his  time. 
He  realized  the  pedagogical  value  of  recreation  and 
companionship,  and  encouraged  the  largest  possible 
freedom  of  thought  and  action  so  long  as  these  did  not 
lead  to  evil.  His  words  to  a  lady  of  high  rank  on  the 
question  of  her  daughter's  religious  education  deserve 
to  be  quoted  at  length.  "Accustom  her,"  said  he, 
"to  enjoy  herself  in  every  way  short  of  sin,  and  to 
find  her  pleasure  apart  from  debasing  amusements. 


228  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

Choose  companions  for  her  who  will  not  spoil  her,  and 
recreation  at  such  hours  as  will  not  give  her  a  distaste 
for  the  serious  occupations  of  the  rest  of  the  day. 
Try  to  make  her  delight  in  God;  do  not  suffer  that  she 
think  of  him  only  as  a  mighty  and  inexorable  judge, 
who  constantly  watches  us  in  order  to  reprove  and 
restrain  us  on  every  occasion;  make  her  see  how  kind 
he  is,  how  he  suits  himself  to  our  needs,  and  has  pity 
for  our  weaknesses;  familiarize  her  with  him  as  with 
a  tender  and  compassionate  father."* 

Tutor  of  a  Duke. — In  1689  Fenelon  became  tutor 
to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  boy  was  proudly  conscious  of  his  royal  lineage, 
and  therefore  hard  to  teach.  To  make  matters  worse, 
although  he  was  by  nature  warm-hearted,  he  also  had 
a  violent  temper,  which  made  control  difficult.  For- 
tunately, Fenelon  was  gifted  with  marvellous  peda- 
gogical insight  and  literary  skill.  In  order  to  interest 
the  proud  duke  in  history,  he  constructed  "Dialogues," 
in  which  the  shades  of  distinguished  men  of  antiquity 
discussed  all  kinds  of  political,  moral,  and  philosophical 
questions;  "Fables,"  in  which  the  duke  could  see  him- 
self morally  as  in  a  mirror;  and  the  "Telemachus,"  a 
story  on  the  order  of  Homer's  "  Odyssey,"  full  of  histori- 
cal, political,  and  moral  instruction  calculated  to  fit 
the  duke  for  his  high  future.  This  method  of  indirect 
instruction  was  a  great  success. 

Fenelon  was  equally  successful  as  a  character- 
builder.  With  his  psychological  insight,  and  the  tender 
solicitude  of  the  Jansenists  for  the  moral  and  eternal 
welfare  of  souls,  Fenelon  strove  to  win  the  bright  and 
impulsive  boy  through  self-control,  patience,  and  piety, 

•  Painter,  p.  248. 


THE  JANSENISTS  229 

thus  carrying  out  St.  Cyran's  injunction  to  "speak 
little,  bear  much,  and  pray  still  more."  In  other  words, 
Fenelon  had  recourse  to  strong  measures  only  when 
all  other  persuasions,  such  as  praise  and  a  charming 
personality,  had  failed,  or  were  likely  to  fail.  In  this 
conflict  for  spiritual  mastery  Fenelon  finally  won,  and 
the  duke  gradually  learned  to  master  his  violent  tem- 
per, becoming  affable,  generous,  and  self -poised.  The 
effectiveness  of  this  indirect  method  of  discipline  is 
startlingly  illustrated  by  an  incident  in  the  duke's 
conduct.  Fenelon  had  gently  reproved  the  young  duke 
for  some  shortcoming,  when,  as  Fenelon's  biographer 
tells  us,  he  said:  "I  know  who  I  am,  and  who  you  are  ! " 
Fenelon,  controlling  himself,  made  no  reply;  but, 
possessing  himself  in  patience,  and  taking  the  matter 
to  God  in  prayer,  he  addressed  the  duke  the  following 
day  in  a  tranquil  but  serious  tone,  saying:  "You  re- 
call, no  doubt,  the  v/ords  you  spoke  to  me  yesterday. 
My  duty  obliges  me  to  say  that  you  know  neither 
who  you  are  nor  who  I  am.  If  you  think  yourself 
above  me,  you  are  mistaken;  your  birth  did  not  de- 
pend upon  you  and  gives  you  no  merit,  and  I  have 
more  prudence  and  knowledge  than  you.  What  you 
know  you  have  learned  from  me,  and  I  am  above  you 
by  reason  of  the  authority  which  the  king  and  your 
father  have  given  me  over  you.  It  was  in  obedience 
to  them  that  I  have  undertaken  the  difficult  and,  as 
it  seems,  ungrateful  task  of  being  your  teacher;  but 
since  you  appear  to  think  that  I  ought  to  feel  particu- 
larly fortunate  in  discharging  this  duty,  I  wish  to  go 
with  you  at  once  to  the  king  and  request  him  to  relieve 
me  of  my  duties  and  to  give  you  another  instructor." 
The  duke   became  greatly   alarmed,   and   bursting 


230  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

into  tears,  he  quickly  replied:  ''I  am  sorry  for  what 
happened  yesterday.  If  you  speak  to  the  king,  I 
shall  forfeit  his  friendship.  If  you  leave  me,  what 
will  be  thought  of  me?  Forgive  me,  and  I  promise 
that  you  will  have  no  ground  of  complaint  in  the 
future." 

Estimate. — That  Fenelon  was  a  past  master  both  in 
the  art  of  teaching  and  in  the  art  of  governing  must  be 
evident  to  any  one  who  understands  the  force  of  the 
foregoing  pages.  We  shall  do  well  to  catch  his  spirit 
and  to  practise  his  methods. 

Like  other  rare  spirits,  Fenelon  failed  to  receive  the 
full  measure  of  reward  which  he  deserved.  In  1695 
he  was  elevated  to  the  archbishopric  of  Cambrai,  and 
devoted  himself  soul  and  body  to  his  high  calling,  but 
theological  controversies,  and  the  loss  of  friends,  in- 
cluding the  king,  who  took  offense  at  some  remark  of 
Fenelon  in  his  "Telemachus,"  embittered  his  last 
days.  He  was  removed  from  his  high  office,  and  died 
at  Cambrai  in  1715,  a  simple  but  lovable  parish  priest. 

ROLLIN 

Through  Rollin,  Jansenism  made  its  way  unobtru- 
sively into  higher  education  and  its  higher  moral  func- 
tions. 

Charles  Rollin  was  born  in  Paris,  1661,  and  died  there, 
1 74 1,  Had  it  not  been  for  a  Benedictine  friar  who  dis- 
covered young  Rollin's  fine  powers,  he  would  probably 
have  followed  the  simple  trade  of  his  father,  that  of 
cutler.  Through  this  friend  Rollin  was  able  to  enter 
the  College  du  Plessis,  where,  due  to  his  genius  and 
vigorous  application,   he  made   rapid  progress,   early 


THE  JANSENISTS  231 

acquiring  special  distinction  in  literary  studies.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-two  Rollin  became  a  master  in  his 
alma  mater.  He  took  a  three-years'  course  in  theology 
at  the  Sorbonne,  probably  the  most  noted  Catholic 
seminary  of  France,  but  he  did  not  enter  the  priest- 
hood. 

High  Positions. — The  scholarly  Rollin,  attaining  to 
high  positions,  managed  to  bring  into  higher  education 
in  France  much  of  what  was  best  in  the  Port  Royalists, 
especially  in  the  teaching  of  the  classics  and  their 
high  conception  of  the  teacher's  sacred  office.  When 
only  twenty-seven  years  of  age,  "he  was  elevated  to 
the  chair  of  eloquence  in  the  College  of  France,  and 
filled  the  position  with  zeal  and  success.  Here  he  en- 
couraged the  study  of  the  French  language  and  litera- 
ture, and  revived  an  interest  in  the  ancient  tongues, 
particularly  in  Greek.  In  1694  he  was  appointed 
rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  signalized  his 
brief  tenure  of  two  years  by  the  introduction  of  some 
salutary  reforms.  In  1699  he  was  made  principal  of 
the  College  of  Beauvais."  Here  he  worked  wonders, 
giving  the  school  a  proud  place  among  university  col- 
leges. He  introduced  reforms  into  the  curriculum, 
adapting  it  more  to  the  age.  His  most  conspicuous 
reforms  were  the  modern  ideas  which  he  infused  into 
the  study  of  history  and  the  prominence  which  he  gave 
to  the  mother  tongue  over  against  Latin.  He  lost  his 
position  in  1712  through  the  unrelenting  persecution 
of  the  Jesuits,  who  could  not  overlook  his  Jansenism. 

Treatise  on  Studies. — Rollin  was  a  prodigious  writer. 
Although  his  extensive  treatise  on  "Ancient  History" 
(1730-1738)  is  best  known,  his  "Treatise  on  Studies" 
(1726-1728)  is  an  important  contribution  to  the  cause  of 


232  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

education,  for  in  this  work  he  set  forth  much  of  what  was 
best  in  the  spirit  and  methods  of  the  Port  Royahsts, 
but  with  infinite  tact  affects  the  innocent  fiction  of 
describing  the  ordinary  practice  of  his  colleagues.  To 
effect  his  purpose  most  completely  he  quotes  exten- 
sively from  such  ancients  as  Plato,  Aristotle,  Seneca, 
Quintilian,  and  Plutarch,  and  gives  special  credit  to 
Fenelon  and  Locke.  Thus  RolKn's  work  has  become 
a  veritable  treasure-house  of  learning  and  pedagogical 
wisdom.  We  are  here  concerned  more  especially  with 
his  distinctly  Jansenistic  views. 

Ends  in  View. — With  RolHn,  as  with  all  the  Jansen- 
ists,  the  fundamental  purpose  of  education  was  to 
save  souls,  and,  as  means  to  this  end,  or  as  reasonable 
correlates,  to  develop  intellect  and  character.  With 
Rollin  the  end  in  view  in  the  study  of  such  subjects  as 
Latin  and  Greek,  or  history,  or  geometry,  or  logic, 
was  not  simply  the  mastery  of  those  subjects,  however 
valuable  such  mastery  might  be,  but  rather  the  power 
to  study  which  the  pupil  should  acquire  as  the  result 
of  study,  together  with  the  love  for  study  which  is 
usually  the  natural  concomitant  of  right  habits  of 
study.  Moreover,  he  looked  upon  acquirements  in 
turn  as  simply  the  means  to  the  end  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  individual  for  the  life  to  which  Providence 
should  call  him.  And  inasmuch  as  character  is  of 
supreme  importance  in  any  proper  preparation  of  the 
individual  for  life,  character-building  must  be  the 
supreme  purpose  of  both  curriculum  and  methods. 
Right  moral  views,  true  piety,  and  holy  living  are  in- 
finitely better  than  great  scholarship,  courtly  proprie- 
ties, and  worldly  prosperity. 

Qualification  of  Teachers.  —  The  same  Jansenistic 
stress  on  the  inestimable  value  of  souls  appears  in  Rol- 


THE  JANSENISTS  233 

lin's  conception  of  the  true  teacher.  Scholar  as  he  was, 
Rolhn  did  not  despise  scholarship  as  a  necessary  quali- 
lication.  Far  from  this,  he  insisted  upon  professional 
training.  But — and  here  is  the  gist  of  it  all — he  believed 
that  every  teacher  should  go  to  school  to  Jesus  Christ. 
It  is  only  from  the  great  teacher  that  we  can  hope  to 
receive  "the  spirit  of  wisdom  and  knowledge,  the  spirit 
of  counsel  and  strength,  the  spirit  of  learning  and  piety" 
which  we  need  as  saviors  of  children  and  trainers  of 
men.  What  the  teacher  of  children  needs  most  of  all 
is  something  of  the  tenderness  and  solicitude  for  chil- 
dren which  the  great  missionary  apostle  Paul  felt  for 
the  Galatians. 

Public  Schools. — The  same  solicitude  for  souls  ap- 
pears in  Rollin's  comparison  of  public  and  private 
schools.  He  quotes  other  authorities,  and  then,  with 
the  characteristic  "reasonableness"  of  the  Jansenists, 
he  puts  it  up  to  the  natural  guardians  of  children  to 
decide.  "As  the  dangers  are  very  great  to  youth  on 
all  sides,  it  is  the  duty  of  parents  to  examine  well  be- 
fore God  what  course  they  ought  to  take,  equitably  to 
weigh  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  which  occur 
on  both  sides,  to  be  determined  in  so  important  a  de- 
liberation only  by  the  motives  of  religion,  and  above 
ail  to  make  such  a  choice  of  masters  and  schools,  in 
case  they  follow  that  course,  as  may,  if  not  entirely 
dissipate,  at  least  diminish,  their  just  apprehension." 

Languages. — The  Port  Royal  "reasonableness"  is 
particularly  conspicuous  in  his  reference  to  the  study 
of  languages.  Rollin  contended  almost  vehemently 
that  the  French  people  should  give  the  same  attention 
to  their  mother  tongue  as  the  ancient  Romans  gave  to 
Latin.  And  he  saw  that  the  languages  should  be 
taught  by  "likeness  of  data,"  or  apperception,  begin- 


234  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

ning  of  course  with  the  mother  tongue.  He  rests  his 
argument  upon  the  assumption,  which  is  pretty  well 
supported  by  philology,  that  all  languages  are  largely 
alike  in  the  elements,  and  he  draws  the  conclusion, 
largely  supported  by  modern  practice,  that  if  the  learner 
approaches  Latin  and  Greek  through  French,  let  us 
say,  he  will  find  less  trouble  to  master  the  dead  lan- 
guage because  the  approach  is  natural,  and  that  there- 
fore in  turn  he  will  find  more  pleasure  in  study. 

Girls. — In  some  respects  Rollin  falls  behind  Fenelon 
in  his  views  on  the  education  of  women.  Granting 
that  sex  does  not  "in  itself  create  a  disparity,"  he  as- 
serts that  Providence  did  not  intend  women  for  the 
great  professions,  but  rather  for  the  queenly  reign  of 
a  household,  and  that  therefore,  with  rare  exceptions, 
the  dead  languages  should  not  be  included  in  her  course 
of  study.  Great  emphasis  should  therefore  be  put  on 
domestic  affairs,  to  which  should  be  added  a  very 
practical  course  in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and 
history.  Instruction  in  religion  and  morals  must,  of 
course,  a:s  in  the  case  of  boys,  be  the  chief  concern. 

Rules  of  Government. — St.  Cyran's  injunctions  to 
teachers  *'to  speak  little  (self-control),  bear  much 
(patience),  and  pray  still  more  (piety),"  have  been  ex- 
panded by  Rollin  into  an  extensive  list  of  fine  rules 
for  school  management,  on  which  it  would  be  difficult 
to  improve.  They  may  be  briefly  summarized  as 
follows: 

I.  The  teacher  should  study  the  temperament  of 
every  child,  and  then,  with  admirable  self-control,  he 
should  punish  only  to  correct.  Sarcasm,  exaggera- 
tion, harshness,  and  passion  never  accomplish  the 
proper  objects  of  school  management.     The  rod  should 


THE    CHRISTIAN   BROTHERS  235 

never  be  used  without  reason  and  moderation,  and  then 
only  for  well-defined,  obstinate  rebellion.  Cuffs  and 
blows  and  other  stultifying  treatment  are  unpar- 
donable. 

2.  The  teacher  should  watch  over  the  conduct  and 
character  of  children  with  infinite  patience,  praising 
honest  effort  when  possible,  but  guarding  against 
vanity.  Rewards  as  well  as  praises  should  supplement 
the  nobler  incentives  to  school  virtues,  and  no  effort 
should  be  spared  to  encourage  rather  than  discourage 
the  child. 

3.  With  Rollin,  as  with  all  the  Jansenists,  piety,  or 
Christlike  personality  in  the  teacher,  was  the  supreme 
element  of  governing  power.  "It  is  a  good  fortune," 
says  he,  "for  young  people  to  find  masters  whose  life 
is  a  continual  lesson;  who  practise  what  they  preach, 
and  shun  what  they  censure;  and  who  are  admired 
more  for  their  conduct  than  for  their  instruction." 

Estimate. — It  is  true  enough,  as  has  been  said,  that 
Rollin's  contributions  to  pedagogy  were  rather  those  of 
great  scholarship  than  those  of  great  originality,  but 
his  absolute  fidelity  to  the  things  of  the  soul  will  always 
command  the  respect  and  compel  the  reverence  of 
true  teachers. 

THE   CHRISTIAN    BROTHERS 

The  Jansenists,  like  the  Jesuits  and  other  Catholic 
orders,  were  engrossed  in  secondary  and  higher  educa- 
tion. In  1684,  however,  La  Salle,  a  French  priest, 
founded  the  Institute  of  the  Christian  Brothers,  which, 
in  time,  was  destined  to  accomplish  for  elementary 
education  in  France  and  other  Catholic  countries  what 
the    Jesuits    accomplished    in    secondary    education. 


236  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

Earlier  attempts,  like  that  of  the  "Piarists"  at  Rome 
(1617)  and  of  Charles  Demia  at  Lyons  (1666),  with 
local  and  special  purposes,  were  either  merged  in  this 
larger  movement  or  succumbed  to  opposition. 

LA   SALLE 

Jean  Baptiste  de  la  Salle  (1651-1719)  was  born  at 
Rheims,  and,  like  Fenelon,  of  noble  lineage.  Even  as 
a  child  he  loved  to  commune  with  holy  things,  and 
religion  was  the  passion  of  his  whole  life.  In  the 
vigorous  pursuit  of  an  education,  he  was  often  handi- 
capped by  a  weak  physical  constitution;  but,  gifted 
with  force  of  character,  he  literally  fought  his  way 
through  the  local  university.  He  took  his  master's 
degree  in  1669,  and  then  studied  theology  at  St. 
Sulpice  and  the  Sorbonne  in  Paris.  He  entered  the 
priesthood  in  1678. 

La  Salle  served  the  cause  of  education  more  especially 
as  the  founder  of  the  Institute  of  the  Christian  Brothers 
(1684)    and   as  author  of  the  ''Conduct  of  Schools" 

(1695). 

The  Institute. — When  La  Salle,  as  successor  to  his 
beloved  spiritual  adviser,  Nicolas  Roland,  first  took 
upon  himself  the  general  supervision  of  sisters  who 
conducted  a  free  school  for  girls,  he  was  not  seriously 
interested,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  in  education.  Pres- 
ently, however,  a  relative  of  Rouen  requested  him 
to  assist  in  the  opening  of  a  free  school  in  Rheims,  of 
which  Adrian  Nyel  was  the  master.  The  success  of 
this  school  led  to  the  foundation  of  others,  until  there 
were  five  masters  in  the  town.  La  Salle  soon  discov- 
ered that  in  spite  of  himself  he  must  take  an  interest 


THE  CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS  237 

in  these  men,  and,  acting  first  as  their  adviser,  he  de- 
cided before  long  to  resign  his  canonry  and  his  worldly- 
possessions  and  live  with  them.  In  1681  a  house  was 
purchased,  and  the  foundation  for  the  "Institute  of  the 
Christian  Brothers"  was  laid.  A  rule  was  drawn  up, 
which  was  the  basis  of  the  later  rule;  new  teachers 
joined  the  community,  and  the  demand  for  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools  rapidly  increased.  Unable 
to  satisfy  any  requests  except  those  from  towns,  he 
undertook  to  train  boys  who  were  sent  to  him  by  the 
country  clergy,  and  who  were  to  return  to  their  homes 
after  their  period  of  training.  In  1685,  about  "fifty 
years  before  Hecker  founded  the  first  Prussian  normal 
school  at  Stettin,  and  twelve  years  before  Francke 
organized  his  teachers'  class  at  Halle,  La  Salle  founded 
a  'Seminary  for  Schoolmasters,'  a  real  normal  school, 
in  which  teachers  were  to  be  trained  for  rural  districts. 
Only  Demia  had  preceded  him  in  this  work.  Later  he 
founded  an  establishment  of  the  same  kind  in  Paris, 
and — a  thing  worthy  of  note — he  annexed  to  this 
normal  school  a  primary  school,  in  which  the  teaching 
was  done  by  the  students  in  training  under  the  direction 
of  an  experienced  teacher."  The  extension  of  his  work 
in  Paris  brought  him  much  care  and  persecution,  and 
yet  he  found  time  to  organize  not  only  primary  schools, 
in  charge  of  trained  teachers,  but  also  facilities  for 
special  education  of  various  sorts. 

Conduct  of  Schools. — La  Salle  drew  up  (1695)  a 
code  of  instruction,  somewhat  like  Loyola's  Ratio 
Studiorum,  which  he  called  the  "Conduct  of  Schools," 
and  in  which  he  explains  the  purposes  of  education, 
the  daily  routine  of  the  "Christian  Schools,"  together 
with  rules  and  regulations.     This  code,  first  published 


238  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

at  Avignon,  in  1720,  the  year  after  his  death,  has  been 
several  times  revised  and  brought  up  to  date,  especially 
in  181 1  and  1870. 

Purposes. — Moved  by  a  deep  and  abiding  piety, 
and  a  genuine  sense  of  Christian  responsibility,  "La 
Salle  thought  only  of  the  children  of  artisans  and  of 
the  poor,  who,  he  said,  being  occupied  during  the  whole 
day  in  earning  their  own  livelihood  and  that  of  their 
families,  could  not  give  the  children  the  instruction 
they  need,  and  a  respectable  and  Christian  education," 
and  he  hoped  not  only  to  provide  such  education 
gratuitously,  but  also  to  make  it  compulsory. 

Curriculum. — The  modest  course  of  study  to  which 
the  code  commits  the  Christian  Schools  consists  almost 
wholly  of  religion  and  good  behavior,  together  with 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  In  the  higher  grades 
a  little  Latin  was  to  be  taught  through  the  mother 
tongue,  as  in  the  Port  Royal  schools. 

Methods. — The  course  of  instruction  was  to  begin 
with  reading  in  the  mother  tongue.  Writing  was  not 
to  be  learned  until  the  pupil  could  read  perfectly.  Cal- 
ligraphy became  a  specialty,  but  the  practical  side 
was  not  to  be  forgotten.  To  this  end  great  stress 
was  laid  on  writing  notes,  receipts,  bills,  etc.  In 
arithmetic  very  little  else  besides  the  four  rules  of 
operation  were  to  be  taught,  but  these  were  to  be 
learned  by  reason  rather  than  by  routine.  A  half 
hour  each  day  was  to  be  devoted  to  the  catechism, 
and  the  religious  exercises  were  to  be  conducted  with 
great  reverence. 

The  schools  were  graded  into  three  classes,  and  the 
''simultaneous  method  of  instruction"  was  used  from 
the  beginning.     In  other  words,  classes  of  pupils,  in- 


THE  PIETISTS  239 

stead  of  one  or  two  pupils  at  a  time,  came  up  to  the 
teacher  to  recite.  This  method,  now  so  common,  was 
a  new  thing  in  La  Salle's  time. 

One  unique  feature  of  the  Christian  Schools  is  the 
silence  to  which  La  Salle  committed  not  only  the  pupils 
but  also  the  teacher  in  much  of  the  communication 
between  them.  This  was  accomplished  by  means  of 
a  system  of  signs. 

The  discipline  of  the  Christian  Schools,  as  well  as 
the  routine,  was  reduced  to  a  system  of  mechanical 
rules  and  regulations,  and,  until  quite  recently,  in- 
cluded methods  of  corporal  punishment  that  were 
humiliating,  to  say  the  least. 

Estimate. — La  Salle's  work  should  be  judged  in  the 
light  of  the  times  to  which  he  belonged.  While  much 
of  his  pedagogy,  especially  the  mechanical  silence  and 
asceticism  upon  which  he  insisted,  cannot  be  defended, 
his  devotion  to  the  cause  of  the  children  for  which  he 
lived  and  worked  deserves  perpetual  admiration.  He 
certainly  deserves  credit  also  for  the  originality  with 
which  he  organized  his  normal  school  and  the  simul- 
taneous method  of  instruction. 

PIETISM 

Pietism  in  Lutheran  Germany,  like  Jansenism  in 
Catholic  France,  and  Puritanism  in  EpiscopaHan 
England,  was  not  a  revolt  from  orthodoxy,  but  a  pro- 
test against  the  dead  formalism  and  intolerance  to 
which  denominationalism  had  reduced  orthodoxy.  The 
"Thirty  Years'  War"  (i6 18-1648),  itself  a  denomina- 
tional conflict,  intensified  the  situation  and  made  it 
intolerable  to  thoughtful  minds. 


240  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

Pietism. — Thus  arose  the  desire  to  subordinate  or- 
thodoxy to  a  religion  of  life  and  love — a  religion  which 
should  really  recognize  the  freedom  of  faith  and  con- 
science for  which  the  reformers  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury contended,  and  which  should  prove  itself  by  love 
to  God  and  deep  concern  for  souls.  Godly  men  like 
Johann  Arndt  and  especially  Philip  Jacob  Spener 
(163 5-1 705)  fathered  German  Pietism,  and  August 
Hermann  Francke  (1663-17  2  7)  brought  Pietism  into 
relation  with  education. 

SPENER 

Spener  was  the  most  notable  of  a  group  of  Lutheran 
theologians  to  protest  against  the  dead  orthodoxy  of 
the  times.  He  began  to  study  theology  at  Strasburg 
when  only  sixteen  years  of  age.  Three  years  later, 
in  1654,  he  began  to  lecture  on  philosophy  and  history. 
In  1664  he  was  made  doctor  of  philosophy  at  Strasburg, 
and  two  years  afterward  he  became  pastor  at  Frank- 
fort. He  was  a  man  of  fine  natural  abilities,  large 
attainments,  and  deep  spirituality.  In  1670  he  began 
a  series  of  meetings  {collegia  pietatis)  at  his  house,  to 
which  young  men  were  invited  for  intimate  study  of 
the  Bible  and  for  the  promotion  of  genuine  personal 
piety.  The  movement  spread  rapidly  and  made  a 
deep  impression  throughout  Germany.  From  1686  to 
1 69 1  he  was  the  court  preacher  at  Dresden,  In  1691 
he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  became  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  founding  of  the  University  of  Halle, 
and  where,  notwithstanding  an  invitation  to  return 
to  Dresden  in  1698,  he  remained  to  the  end  of  his  life. 


THE  PIETISTS  241 


FRANCKE 


In  Fran  eke,  Pietism  became  a  most  fruitful  educa- 
tional philanthropy. 

Francke  was  born  at  Liibeck,  on  the  Baltic.  In 
1676,  only  thirteen  years  of  age,  the  precocious  and 
deeply  religious  boy  entered  the  highest  class  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Gotha.  Here,  through  the  influence 
of  Andreas  Reyher,  he  became  interested  in  the  edu- 
cational reforms  of  Ratich  and  Comenius.  In  1679 
he  entered  the  University  of  Erfurt,  but,  receiving  a 
valuable  scholarship  from  the  University  of  Kiel,  he 
went  there  the  same  year,  and  remained  three  years, 
devoting  himself  especially  to  theology,  but  also  at- 
tending lectures  on  philosophy,  philology,  and  history. 
He  took  a  special  course  in  Hebrew  under  the  distin- 
guished Orientalist  Edzardi,  and  in  1685,  receiving 
the  master's  degree  from  the  University  of  Leipsic, 
he  began  to  lecture  there  on  the  Bible.  The  following 
year  he  started  a  society  for  "the  careful  discussion 
and  pious  application  of  the  Scriptures."  This  move- 
ment attracted  much  attention  and  brought  him  into 
intimate  relation  with  Spener,  who  was  then  the  court 
preacher  at  Dresden.  The  experiment,  however,  cost 
him  his  position  at  the  university. 

At  Hamburg. — In  1687  he  went  to  Hamburg,  and 
established  a  primary  school.  This  experience,  as  he 
himself  says,  determined  the  direction  of  his  life.  "I 
learned  how  destructive  the  usual  school  management 
is,  and  how  exceedingly  difficult  the  discipline  of  chil- 
dren; and  this  reflection  made  me  desire  that  God 
would  make  me  worthy  to  do  something  for  the  im- 
provement of  schools  and  instruction." 


242  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

Great  Work  at  Halle. — Presently  he  returned  to 
Leipsic,  where  his  lectures  on  Bible  exegesis,  "differ- 
ing widely  from  the  cold,  logical  process  of  the  univer- 
sities," attracted  much  attention,  but  through  which 
he  again  lost  his  position.  In  1690  he  was  called  to  a 
pastorate  in  Erfurt,  from  which  the  enmity  of  the  con- 
servative clergy  drove  him  in  a  short  time.  In  1691, 
through  the  influence  of  Spener,  he  was  called  to  the 
newly  founded  University  of  Halle  as  professor  of 
Oriental  languages.  Here  he  also  became  the  pastor 
of  a  poor  suburban  parish,  and  thus  found  the  great 
opportunity  for  which  he  had  prayed — the  opportunity 
for  educational  philanthropy.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  work  which  Francke  accomplished  in  this  suburb 
of  Halle  has  ever  been  paralleled.  Francke  began  his 
work  in  a  very  modest  way.  The  poor  used  to  come  to 
his  parsonage  on  Thursday  to  receive  alms.  He  made 
up  his  mind  very  promptly  to  add  religious  instruction 
to  almsgiving.  In  this  way  he  soon  discovered  that 
poverty  and  ignorance  often  went  hand  in  hand.  The 
discovery  touched  his  great  heart,  and  he  often  deprived 
himself  of  comforts  in  order  that  he  might  go  to  the 
rescue  of  needy  souls.  Presently  he  turned  to  his 
friends  for  help,  and  put  up  a  poor-box  for  contribu- 
tions. One  day  a  good-hearted  woman  placed  seven 
florins  in  the  box.  When  Francke  found  the  money 
he  was  very  happy.  He  began  to  see  that  he  could 
start  a  school  for  the  poor.  He  soon  began  to  pur- 
chase necessary  books,  and  employed  a  needy  student 
of  the  university  to  teach  the  poor  in  the  parsonage 
several  hours  every  day.  The  undertaking  was  so  suc- 
cessful that  the  parsonage  could  not  accommodate  the 
many  pupils,  and  more  commodious  quarters  had  to 
be  found. 


THE  PIETISTS  243 

Money  and  friends  came  to  him  in  answer  to  prayer, 
and  his  work  grew  to  such  extensive  proportions  that 
at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1727  it  comprised  institu- 
tions as  follows: 

1.  The  school  for  the  poor,  with  which  his  work  had 
begun  in  1695,  and  which  continued  to  prosper  won- 
derfully. 

2.  A  primary  school  to  which  the  citizens  of  Halle 
sent  their  children,  paying  a  small  fee.  Here  several 
thousand  boys  and  girls  went  to  school  to  be  trained 
as  teachers  in  1727. 

3.  The  Orphan  House  where  ten  overseers  had  charge 
of  a  hundred  boys  and  thirty-four  girls.  Modern 
orphan  homes  have  sprung  in  great  numbers  from  this 
pattern. 

4.  The  Latin  School,  where  the  more  talented  boys 
of  the  Orphan  House  together  with  the  sons  of  citizens 
were  given  a  fine  training.  In  1727  this  school  had 
thirty-two  teachers  under  three  inspectors,  and  the 
pupils  numbered  four  hundred. 

5.  The  Pedagogium,  which  was  a  well-organized 
boarding-school  for  boys  who  could  afford  to  attend. 
Here  the  languages,  mathematics,  sciences,  arts,  etc., 
were  taught  in  connection  with  religion.  This  institu- 
tion was  equipped  with  a  museum  of  natural  history, 
a  physical  laboratory,  a  chemical  laboratory,  and  a 
botanical  garden.  In  1727  there  were  eighty- two  stu- 
dents in  attendance. 

6.  As  early  as  1696  a  training-school  for  teachers 
was  established,  and  called  the  Seminarium  Pracep- 
torum.  We  are  told  that  only  La  Salle's  Institute  pre- 
ceded this  attempt  to  found  normal  schools.  This 
school  attempted  to  supply  teachers  for  Francke's  in- 
stitutions and  other  European  schools. 


244  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

7.  In  time  a  "free  table"  was  established  to  accom- 
modate the  needy  university  students  who  taught  in 
Francke's  schools. 

8.  Francke  was  a  very  practical  man.  This  appears 
from  the  fact  that  he  established  a  bookstore,  a  paper- 
mill,  a  printing-press,  a  drugstore,  and  other  facilities. 
These  means  added  to  his  income,  and  served  as  a 
convenience. 

At  the  time  of  his  death  Francke  had  under  his  super- 
vision in  the  several  schools  and  institutions  four  thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  seventy-three  people. 

A  large  plot  of  land  was  acquired  and  suitable  build- 
ings erected  for  the  housing  of  these  institutions.  The 
necessary  means  for  the  maintenance  of  so  large  a  plant 
were  obtained  partly  through  the  commercial  and  in- 
dustrial enterprises  to  which  attention  has  already  been 
called,  and  partly  through  gifts  which  came  from  all 
parts  of  Germany.  In  1708  Frederick  I,  King  of 
Prussia,  paid  a  visit  to  the  institution,  and  being 
highly  pleased,  added  valuable  privileges. 

Francke's  Pedagogy. — The  two  conspicuous  features 
of  the  pedagogy  of  Francke  were  a  deep  and  abiding 
piety,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  Comenius,  a  keen  modern 
insight  into  the  problems  of  mind  and  life. 

Ends  in  View. — Francke's  first  purpose,  like  that  of 
St.  Cyran  and  La  Salle,  was  to  save  souls,  and  thus 
to  serve  God,  and,  in  the  founding  of  his  institutions, 
he  depended  upon  prayer  to  bring  him  the  necessary 
help.  "A  grain  of  living  faith,"  said  he,  "is  worth 
more  than  a  pound  of  historic  knowledge;  and  a  drop 
of  love,  than  an  ocean  of  science."  But,  having  em- 
phasized the  "better  part,"  this  truly  Christian  lover 
of  souls  gave  all  his  educational  institutions  a  voca- 


THE  PIETISTS  245 

tional  trend  most  definitely  modern.  "In  all  instruc- 
tion," said  he,  "we  must  keep  the  pupils'  station  and 
future  calling  in  mind."  We  must  teach  them  to  "act 
wisely  in  life,  wherever  God  may  place  them." 

Courses  of  Study. — Accordingly,  "In  the  instruction 
of  those  who  are  destined  to  unprofessional  employ- 
ments and  trades,  the  most  important  thing  after  re- 
ligion is  an  acquaintance  with  the  indispensable  arts 
of  reading,  writing,  and  reckoning;  but  the  elements 
of  other  branches  of  knowledge  should  not  be  neglected, 
especially  the  elements  of  natural  science,  geography, 
history,  and  government,  which,  however,  are  to  be 
brought  forward  incidentally  and  later."  Francke 
saw  the  importance  of  pleasure  and  recreation  in  school- 
life,  and  pointed  out  as  means  to  ends,  physical  exer- 
cise, mechanical  employments,  gardening,  and  the  ex- 
amination of  new  and  interesting  objects  of  nature  and 
art. 

Methods. — In  his  treatise  on  the  education  of  chil- 
dren, Francke  directed  teachers  to  study  the  indi- 
viduality of  pupils.  Like  the  Jansenists  and  the 
Christian  Brothers,  he  insisted  on  the  mother  tongue 
and  direct  observation  as  the  correct  approach  to 
curriculum.  Probably  Ratich  and  Comenius  had 
paved  the  way  for  Francke  in  this  realism.  Much  as 
he  expected  the  memory  to  accomplish,  he  was  utterly 
opposed  to  any  divorce  of  memory  from  reason  and 
understanding. 

Discipline. — In  the  rules  of  discipline  which  Francke 
urged  upon  his  teachers,  he  reminds  us  strongly  of 
Rollin's  Jansenism. 

We  may  sum  them  up  under  piety,  patience,  and 
self-control. 


246  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

1.  The  teacher's  personality  counts  for  more  than 
all  else,  and  should  therefore  be  profoundly  Christian. 

2.  The  teacher  should  cultivate  cordiality  and  for- 
bearance, correcting  the  faults  of  children  by  instruc- 
tion rather  than  by  punishment.  Punishment  may, 
however,  become  necessary. 

3.  The  teacher  should  control  himself,  never  punish- 
ing children  in  anger,  nor  abusing  them  with  harsh 
epithets,  nor  scolding  them  for  stupidity. 

Estimate. — Francke's  energy  was  marvellous.  The 
amount  of  work  which  he  could  perform  would  over- 
whelm an  ordinary  man.  His  connection  with  the 
institutions  which  he  founded,  and  which  he  developed 
into  such  extensive  correlation,  did  not  keep  him  from 
the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties  to  his  congrega- 
tion. As  a  professor  he  was  a  great  power  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle,  causing  useful  changes  in  the  cur- 
riculum, and  elevating  the  moral  tone  of  the  students 
as  a  body.  The  printing  establishment  which  he 
founded  made  it  possible  to  send  forth  a  million  and 
a  half  of  Bibles  and  a  million  copies  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment before  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Un- 
der the  patronage  of  the  King  of  Denmark,  Frederick 
IV,  he  founded  a  mission  in  India  that  continued  over 
a  century.  The  teachers  and  ministers  who  went 
forth  from  his  institutions  reached  all  parts  of  Europe. 
Count  Zinzendorf,  the  founder  of  the  Moravian  Church, 
was  one  of  his  pupils. 

The  institutions  which  he  founded  have  come  down 
to  the  twentieth  century,  full  of  vitality  and  promise. 
Through  Hecker,  his  pupil,  the  practical  studies  which 
Francke  encouraged  in  secondary  education,  became 
the  foundation  of  the  modern  Real  Schulen  of  Germany. 


THE  PIETISTS  247 

Through  Spener  and  Francke  the  University  of  Halle 
became  the  parent  of  modern  universities,  both  in 
curriculum  and  method. 

It  is  true  that  in  time  Pietism,  like  Jansenism  in 
France,  and  Puritanism  in  England,  ran  into  fanatic 
extremes  which  offended  true  conservatism  both  in 
religion  and  in  education,  but  it  is  equally  true  that 
the  spirit  of  Spener  and  Francke  still  hovers  over  us, 
and  rests  upon  education  as  a  blessed  benediction. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Compayre's  "History  of  Education." 

2.  Graves'  "  History  of  Education,"  vol.  Ill,  "  Modern  Times." 

3.  Painter's  "History  of  Education." 

4.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Account  for  the  beliefs  of  Bishop  Jansenius  as  fully  as  pos- 
sible, and  explain  the  presence  of  his  ideas  at  Port  Royal. 

2.  On  what  fundamental  points  did  the  Port  Royalists  differ 
from  the  Jesuits?  Point  out  in  great  detail  the  reasonable 
adaptation  of  means  to  ends,  and  account  for  the  fate  of  the 
"little  schools." 

3.  Account  as  fully  as  possible  for  Fenelon's  "Education  of 
Girls."  Explain  his  indirect  method  of  instructing  a  duke,  and 
point  out  the  Janseni  m  in  his  management  of  the  duke. 

4.  Account  as  fully  as  possible  for  RoUin's  presence  in  higher 
institutions  of  learning.  Point  out  the  Jansenism  of  his  views 
on  four  or  five  big  educational  questions. 

5.  Put  your  best  estimate  on  the  worth  of  Jansenism  as  a 
contribution  to  the  cause  of  education. 

6.  Compare  the  influence  of  F^nelon  and  Rollin  on  education 
with  that  of  Sturm  and  Loyola. 

7.  What  were  the  "Christian  Brothers"?  Compare  their 
purposes  with  that  of  other  teaching  congregations. 

8.  Account  fully  for  La  Salle's  Institute,  and  explain  the  views 
which  he  sets  forth  in  his  "Conduct  of  Schools." 


'•^•'248  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

9.  Should  you  consider  the  Jansenists  and  Jesuits  competitors 
or  supplements  as  contributors  to  the  cause  of  education  ? 

10.  What  was  Pietism?  Account  for  its  origin,  and  give 
Spener  due  credit. 

11.  Account  fully  for  Francke's  Pietism.  Explain  his  Ham- 
burg experiment  and  his  great  work  at  Halle. 

12.  What  were  the  remarkable  features  of  Francke's  Peda- 
gogium?  Compare  the  radius  of  Francke's  influence  with  that 
of  Loyola  and  La  Salle. 

13.  To  what  extent  did  Jansenism  and  Pietism  escape  the 
formalism  into  which  the  humanism  of  Sturm  and  the  Jesuits 
degenerated?  Would  the  faithful  exaltation  of  individuality 
really  save  educational  systems  from  formalism?  Adduce 
proofs. 


LIBRARY 

STAIS  NC'RMAL  SCM#»l. 
v:^K'JAL  f  <TS  AND  sunt  UMO^ 
SANfi  ^:.'"BARA,  CAllfOHIlA 


'^^^'D 


PART  IV 
REALISM 

CHAPTER  XIV 

REALISM 

Reaction  against  the  extreme  positions  of  humanism 
was  inevitable. 

Retrospect. — The  literary  beauty  which  had  taken 
the  world  of  the  fifteenth  century  captive  was  largely 
a  beauty  of  structure  and  style,  but  the  men  who  were 
moved  by  these  charms  "opened  the  Bible,"  and  thus 
helped  to  produce  the  sixteenth-century  Reformation, 
in  which  freedom  of  conscience  and  reason  were  the 
watchwords  of  individuality.  The  new  ideals,  as  we 
have  seen,  came  into  collision  with  tradition  and  pre- 
scription, and  thus  produced  not  only  religious  wars 
like  those  of  Philip  II  of  Spain  and  Ferdinand  of 
Bohemia  (the  Thirty  Years'  War)  but  also  educational 
wars  like  that  of  the  secondary  schools  and  universities 
in  the  training  of  denominational  leaders  and  teachers. 
In  these  rivalries  the  very  watchwords  of  the  Reforma- 
tion lost  their  power,  and  Protestantism,  like  Catholi- 
cism, organized  its  ideals  into  rigid  formalism.  Pre- 
scription and  repression  once  more  gained  the  upper 
hand  almost  everywhere.     Reaction  was  inevitable. 

249 


250  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Realism. — The  very  wars  which  produced  these  new 
prescriptive  and  repressive  denominational  "fortresses" 
also  produced  new  champions  of  human  freedom,  and 
this  time,  in  realism,  as  the  third  phase  of  the  Renais- 
sance, truth  rather  than  beauty,  and  religion  in  the 
prescriptive  sense  became  the  watchword,  so  much  so 
that  to  some  extent  at  least  both  beauty  and  religion 
suffered.  Fortunately  for  the  human  spirit,  this  ten- 
sion, because  it  is  not  inherent,  did  not  persist  very 
long,  and  although  it  has  not  disappeared  completely 
from  the  twentieth  century,  promises  to  do  so.  This 
third  phase  of  the  Renaissance  is  called  "realism,"  and 
may  be  defined  as  a  demand  for  education  that  deals 
with  the  realities  of  the  present  life  and  prepares  for 
its  tasks.  There  were  three  stages  of  realism,  namely, 
humanistic  realism,  "social  realism,"  as  Doctor  Mon- 
roe calls  it,  and  sense-realism. 

Humanistic  Realism. — Even  when  humanism  began 
to  lose  its  power  over  those  who  dared  to  think  for 
themselves,  they  could  not  at  once  emancipate  them- 
selves from  that  worship  of  the  past  to  which  the  world 
had  become  accustomed.  When,  accordingly,  the 
social  fabric  of  the  age,  together  with  ever-present 
"nature"  and  its  forces,  began  to  attract  the  attention 
of  these  thinkers,  they  sought  mental  refuge  in  com- 
promise. They  began  to  see  that  current  humanism 
had  failed  because  it  had  emphasized  form,  or  language, 
above  content,  or  ideas,  but  stoutly  insisted  that  if 
the  content  rather  than  the  form  of  the  classics  were 
emphasized,  they  were  still  the  best  sources  of  informa- 
tion in  the  study  of  man  and  nature,  and  in  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  one  to  the  other — which  adjustment  was 
now  assumed  to  be  the  great  end  in  view  in  education. 


REALISM  251 

This  view,  of  which  Rabelais  and  Milton  were  probably 
the  best  exponents,  is  known  as  "humanistic  realism," 
from  the  fact  that  it  undertook  to  understand  the  pres- 
ent through  the  past. 

Social  Realism. — The  social  realists  were  men  of 
affairs,  interested  in  the  public  life  of  the  age  to  which 
they  belonged,  and  therefore  in  favor  of  an  education 
that  would  answer  practical  purposes.  Accordingly, 
they  deplored  the  pedantry  of  humanism,  and  its 
divorce  from  real  life,  and  turned  impatiently  from  the 
life  of  the  far  past  to  that  of  the  living  present.  An 
aristocratic  individualism,  looking  to  personal  success 
in  public  life,  dominated  all  their  views.  They  believed 
that  what  the  young  aristocrat  needed  was  an  education 
in  practical  wisdom,  secured  not  in  the  schools  but 
through  a  tutor  who  should  choose  both  subject-matter 
and  method,  with  an  eye  single  to  success  in  life.  They 
emphasized  the  living  languages  and  travel  for  contact 
with  living  men,  and  valued  history  and  politics  above 
grammar  and  rhetoric.  A  good  physique  and  fine 
manners,  with  a  little  military  dash  thrown  in,  was  en- 
couraged, and,  although  religion  was  not  neglected, 
it  was  not  allowed  to  handicap  worldly  wisdom.  This 
class  of  thinkers  was  probably  best  represented  by 
Montaigne  and  Locke. 

Sense- Realism. — The  sense-realists  also  turned  away 
from  the  past  to  the  present,  and  from  ideas  handed 
down  in  books  to  ideas  ascertained  first  hand  through 
a  study  of  things,  which  term  included  both  nature 
and  human  nature.  This  movement  was  therefore 
really  a  later  development  of  that  earliest  interest  in 
nature  which  characterized  the  Italian  Renaissance  in 
its  first  appearance.     Men  dared  to  study  nature  for 


252  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

themselves,  caring  little  for  authority,  even  that  of 
Aristotle.  Nature  itself  was  consulted  and  investi- 
gated by  experiment,  and  truth  wrested  from  mystery. 
Through  this  courageous  interest  in  nature  Copernicus 
(1473-1543),  as  a  sort  of  forerunner,  discovered  that 
the  sun  was  the  centre  of  the  planetary  system. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  however,  the 
church  was  very  unfriendly  to  such  researches,  and  when 
the  Reformation  emancipated  reason,  it  was  rather  in 
the  service  of  religious  disputes  than  for  the  clearing 
up  of  mysteries  in  nature.  But  the  seventeenth  century 
emancipated  itself  amazingly  from  this  handicap,  and 
bold  investigators,  in  their  first  overconfidence,  some- 
times reached  conclusions  in  open  conflict  with  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  religion,  and  in  flat  contradiction 
to  the  Greek  authorities,  venerated  many  centuries. 
Galileo  invented  the  telescope  (1609),  Kepler  explained 
the  motions  of  the  planets  (1609),  and  Newton  the  law 
of  gravitation  (1685).  Napier  invented  logarithms 
(1614),  Descartes  founded  analytical  geometry  (1637), 
Leibnitz  followed  with  integral  calculus.  Harvey  dis- 
covered the  circulation  of  the  blood  (1628),  Guericke 
invented  the  air-pump  (1650),  about  the  same  time 
Pascal  ascertained  that  the  air  has  weight,  Boyle  pro- 
pounded the  theory  of  the  vacuum  and  of  gases  (1665), 
and  Malpighi  invented  the  compound  microscope  in 
the  service  of  anatomy  soon  afterward. 

Literary  activity  rivalled  this  scientific  activity. 
The  result  was  a  golden  age  of  letters  in  England  and 
France.  England  produced  Bacon,  Shakespeare,  and 
Milton.  France  produced  great  dramatists  like  Mo- 
liere  and  Racine;  letter- writers  like  Pascal  and  Ma- 
dame de  Sevigne;   orators  like  Massillon;    and  educa- 


REALISM  253 

tional  writers  like  Fenelon  and  Rollin.  The  greatest 
sense-realists  of  the  seventeenth  century  were  Mul- 
caster,  Bacon,  and  Comenius. 

RABELAIS 

Among  the  interesting  representatives  of  early 
realism  was  Frangois  Rabelais  (1483-1553). 

He  was  the  son  of  a  French  innkeeper,  and  a  con- 
temporary of  Luther.  In  the  Franciscan  monastery 
to  which  his  people  had  sent  him  to  school,  he  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic,  and  under- 
took a  wide  course  in  general  reading.  When  his 
superiors  forbade  him  to  continue  his  self-selected 
curriculum,  he  fled  in  disgust,  nor  did  he  stay  long  in 
the  Benedictine  monastery  to  which  he  next  obtained 
admission,  but  became  a  sort  of  itinerant  priest,  and 
undertook  to  study  the  sciences  of  his  day,  giving  special 
attention  to  medicine.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
faculty  of  medicine  at  Montpelier,  in  1530,  but  remained 
only  two  years,  when  he  was  made  physician  to  the 
Lyons  Hospital.  Nor  was  his  roving  at  an  end  even 
then,  but,  ever  devoted  to  his  studies,  he  eventually 
became  famous  as  the  writer  of  "Gargantua"  (1535) 
and  "Pantagruel"  (1552),  two  of  the  most  sarcastic 
satires  on  education  ever  written,  and  far  in  advance 
of  his  age. 

Ideas. — The  great  theme  which  Rabelais  had  in 
mind  was  an  education  that  should  benefit  the  whole 
Hian.  Mind  and  body  were  to  be  nurtured  together. 
In  the  training  of  the  intellect  books  and  things  were 
to  confirm  each  other.  Religion  was  to  make  for  char- 
acter, and  the  pupil  taught  to  fit  himself  for  his  place 


254  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

in  the  world  of  men,  and  to  perform  the  tasks  of  man- 
hood with  grace  and  dignity.  These  ideals  Rabelais 
ingeniously  embodied  in  Gargantua's  "school-day," 
in  which  reading  and  things,  ideas  and  experiences, 
were  to  be  so  harnessed  together  that  reason  and 
memory  were  never  divorced  from  each  other,  and 
"school  w^as  life."  The  realistic  correlation  of  hand- 
work, head-work,  and  health-culture  which  he  pro- 
posed were  anticipations  of  most  modern  propositions. 
School-Day. — This  school-day  was  to  begin  at  4 
A.  M.,  with  reading  of  "some  chapter  of  the  Holy 
Scripture,"  and  sometimes  he  was  to  give  "himself  to 
revere,  adore,  pray,  and  send  up  his  supplications  to 
that  good  God,  whose  word  did  show  his  majesty  and 
marvellous  judgments."  Gargantua's  programme  in- 
cluded arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  and  music, 
but  the  "trivium"  so  revered  by  the  humanists  was 
ignored.  Gargantua  was  expected  to  master  the 
substance  of  the  books  used  so  thoroughly  that  he  knew 
them  almost  by  heart,  but  what  he  learned  was  to  be 
at  once  "applied  to  practical  cases."  At  dinner,  "if 
they  thought  good  they  continued  reading  or  began 
to  discourse  merrily  together"  about  the  food  they 
were  eating  and  the  "nature"  of  each  article  of  food. 
"While  they  talked  of  these  things,  they  caused  the 
very  books"  which  they  had  read  on  the  subjects 
discussed  "to  be  brought  to  the  table"  in  order  to 
assure  themselves.  Out-of-doors,  Gargantua  was  to 
observe  trees  and  plants,  and  "compare  them  with 
what  is  written  of  them  in  the  books  of  the  ancients, 
such  as  Theophrastus,  Dioscorides,  etc."  Gargantua 
was  encouraged  to  study  the  face  of  the  heavens  at 
night,  and  thus  observe  the  changes  from  morning  to 


REALISM  255 

morning.  To  this  head-work  hand-work  was  to  be 
added,  for  Gargantua  and  his  fellows  were  to  "recreate 
themselves  in  bottling  hay,  in  cleaving  and  sawing 
wood,  and  in  threshing  sheaves  of  corn  in  the  barn. 
They  also  studied  the  art  of  painting  or  carving." 
The  whole  course  of  instruction  was  "further  con- 
nected with  life  by  visits  to  various  handicrafts,  in 
whose  workshops  they  did  learn  and  consider  the  in- 
dustry and  invention  of  the  trader."  Even  holidays, 
for  which  the  finest  day  of  each  month  was  selected, 
"though  spent  without  book  or  lecture,"  were  spent 
in  a  profitable  way;  "for  in  the  meadows  they  repeated 
certain  pleasant  verses  of  Vergil's  'Agriculture,'  of 
Hesiod,  of  Politian's  'Husbandry.'"  Special  exer- 
cises for  health  of  body  were  prescribed  for  Gargantua, 
and  all  in  all  his  work  "became  so  sweet,  so  easy  and 
delightful,  tJiat  it  seemed  rather  the  recreation  of  a 
king  than  the  study  of  a  scholar,"  and  corporal  punish- 
ment was  never  necessary.*  Rabelais's  efforts  to  win 
attention  in  this  novel  educational  treatise  were  richly 
rewarded  by  the  avidity  with  which  his  writings  were 
read. 

MONTAIGNE 

The  reaction  against  humanism  in  France  is  bril- 
liantly voiced  by  Michel  Montaigne  (i 533-1 592). 

The  early  education  of  Montaigne  was  meant  to  be 
an  experiment,  as  it  appears.  His  father  put  the  little 
boy  in  charge  of  a  German  tutor  who  could  not  speak 
French,  and  who  was  to  carry  on  all  conversation  in 
Latin.  The  child  also  learned  Latin  from  house- 
servants,  who  never  spoke  French  to  him.  The  result 
*  Quick's  "Educational  Reformers,"  chap.  V. 


256  fflSTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

was  that  at  the  age  of  six  he  could  speak  Latin.  He 
was  then  sent  to  the  famous  College  of  Guienne,  near 
Bordeaux,  where  he  was  graduated  at  the  age  of  thir- 
teen, and  later  he  studied  law.  The  city  of  Bordeaux 
honored  him  signally,  electing  him  a  member  of  parlia- 
ment when  he  was  only  twenty,  and  twice  as  mayor 
in  middle  life.  In  the  meantime  his  services  as  coun- 
sellor had  brought  him  much  into  French  court  life, 
and  he  appears  to  have  served  both  Francis  II  and 
Henry  III,  the  unfortunate  sons  of  Catharine  de  Medici, 
in  some  capacity  or  other,  and  was  probably  attached 
to  their  cause.  Nevertheless,  having  ample  means, 
and  not  caring  seriously  for  politics,  he  spent  much 
of  his  life  in  philosophic  retirement  at  the  paternal 
chateau  of  "Montaigne,"  writing  brilliant  essays  on 
all  sorts  of  subjects,  but  more  particularly  on  French 
"society"  and  on  education  in  general.  His  essays 
on  "Pedantry"  and  "The  Education  of  Children" 
furnish  us  with  his  educational  views. 

Ideas. — When  Montaigne  discussed  education,  he 
had  in  mind  a  life  of  opportunity  and  individual  fit- 
ness for  the  living  present.  His  own  contact  with 
public  men  had  taught  him  the  utter  futility  of  the 
formal  humanism  to  which  he  had  been  subjected  in 
his  own  education,  and  which  was  still  very  prevalent 
in  his  own  country. 

Ends  in  View. — For  such  a  life  as  he  had  in  mind, 
"wisdom"  and  "character"  were  the  great  ends  in 
view,  and  these  ends  rather  than  prescription  by  the 
ancients  should  determine  the  content  and  method  of 
education. 

Course. — The  course  of  study  might  include  some  of 
the  traditional  studies,  such  as  logic,  rhetoric,  geometry. 


REALISM  257 

and  physics,  and  even  Latin  and  Greek;  but  the  em- 
phasis should  be  placed  on  the  living  languages,  physi- 
cal culture,  and  extensive  travel  under  a  tutor  of  good 
judgment,  "whose  head  is  well  tempered  rather  than 
well  filled." 

Methods. — In  teaching  the  boy,  "Let  the  master 
examine  him  not  only  about  the  words  of  the  lesson," 
says  Montaigne,  "but  also  as  to  the  sense  and  mean- 
ing of  them,  and  let  him  judge  of  the  profit  he  has  made, 
not  by  the  testimony  of  his  memory,  but  that  of  his 
understanding."  He  recommends  that  Latin  and 
Greek  should  be  learned  by  speaking  them,  and  thus 
compliments  the  method  employed  in  his  own  early 
education.  He  believed  that  sensible  methods  of  in- 
struction in  the  schools  would  make  the  usual  discipline 
of  "rods  and  ferules"  unnecessary,  and  that  schools 
would  then  no  longer  be  "merely  prisons."  * 

Estimate. — In  purpose  and  content,  the  education 
which  Montaigne  recommends  is  clearly  "social  re- 
alism" of  a  strongly  individualistic  type,  while  in 
method  it  is  just  as  clearly  "sense-realism."  His  in- 
fluence on  current  practice,  though  we  cannot  trace 
it,  owing  to  the  difiicult  age  in  which  he  lived,  must 
have  been  considerable,  for  he  was  widely  read.  Locke 
and  Rousseau,  as  we  shall  see,  followed  his  lead  in 
their  social  realism,  and  Bacon  and  Comenius  found 
his  practical  programme  a  direct  road  to  sense-realism. 

MULCASTER 

To  Richard  Mulcaster  (1530-1611),  rather  than  to 
Francis  Bacon,  belongs  the  credit  of  paving  the  way  for 
*  Graves,  vol.  II,  pp.  248-249. 


258  HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION 

sense-realism  in  England  and  the  English-speaking 
world. 

The  basis  of  Mulcaster's  own  education  was  laid  at 
Eton  under  Nicholas  Udall,  a  famous  master.  In 
1548  he  was  at  Cambridge  as  a  king's  scholar.  He 
was  graduated  from  Christ's  College,  Oxford,  in  1556. 
Five  years  later  he  was  appointed  head  master  of 
Merchant  Taylors'  School,  and  taught  there  success- 
fully for  twenty-five  years.  His  specialties  were 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  but  he  devoted  much  time 
to  music  and  the  drama.  He  presented  plays  to  Queen 
Elizabeth  for  several  years,  and  she  appointed  him 
rector  of  a  church  in  Essex.  In  1596  he  became  head 
master  of  St.  Paul's,  and  remained  there  until  1608. 
The  Elizabethan  Age,  whose  spirit  he  must  have 
caught,  transformed  him  in  theory  at  least  from  the 
humanism  to  which  he  was  subjected  in  his  own  edu- 
cation, and  to  which  he  was  committed  as  head  master 
of  popular  humanistic  secondary  schools,  into  a  realist 
with  ideals  that  would  have  made  him  feel  perfectly 
at  home  in  the  twentieth  century.  The  two  works 
upon  which  his  reputation  as  an  educational  prophet 
rests  are  his  "Positions"  (1581)  and  his  " Elementarie " 
(1582),  both  in  his  favorite,  though  now  almost  un- 
readable, English. 

Ideas. — In  his  search  after  truth,  Mulcaster,  like 
other  realists,  turned  his  attention  to  the  living  pres- 
ent rather  than  the  dead  past,  and  to  nature  rather 
than  tradition. 

Aims. — As  we  should  expect  from  the  period  in 
which  he  lived,  Mulcaster  emphasized  religion,  but 
kept  the  practical  needs  of  the  individual  well  to  the 
front,  and  ranged  himself  rather  on  the  side  of  democ- 
racy than  that  of  aristocracy. 


REALISM  259 

Course. — It  was  Mulcaster's  idea  that,  "for  religion's 
sake  and  their  necessary  aflfairs,"  an  elementary  course 
consisting  of  reading  and  writing  English,  together 
with  music  and  drawing,  should  be  offered  to  all  chil- 
dren, boys  and  girls  alike,  whether  they  belonged  to 
the  masses  or  the  higher  classes.  And  to  this  course 
for  the  mind,  physical  culture  was  to  be  added  on  the 
ground  that  "the  soul  and  the  body  are  copartners 
in  good  and  ill." 

Mulcaster  deplored  the  fact  of  his  age  that  so  many 
young  people  coveted  a  higher  education  simply  as 
the  road  to  "personal  preferment,"  and  he  believed 
that  this  ambition  was  an  injury  not  only  to  the  indi- 
vidual but  also  to  the  social  whole.  Accordingly,  al- 
though he  admitted  the  educational  value  of  foreign 
travel,  he  did  not  deem  it  essential,  and  thus  differed 
from  the  social  realists,  Montaigne  and  Locke,  and 
even  from  Milton.  Nevertheless,  he  advocated  that 
after  a  grammar-school  course  of  four  years,  promising 
boys  should  be  sent  to  universities,  including  "colleges 
for  tongues,  for  mathematics,  for  philosophy,  for  teach- 
ers, for  physicians,  for  lawyers,  for  divines."  In  this 
matter  Mulcaster,  with  the  sense-realists  of  all  cen- 
turies, bases  professional  training  on  individual  fit- 
ness, and  calls  attention  to  the  folly  of  educating  a 
boy  for  the  ministry  when  ploughing  was  his  special 
talent. 

Methods. — Mulcaster  strongly  preferred  public  to 
private  tutorial  education,  and  emphasized  the  im- 
portance of  healthful  schoolhouses  and  proper  play- 
grounds. His  faith  in  the  importance  of  education 
for  the  sake  of  religion  and  life  led  him  to  advocate 
compulsory  attendance  not  only  for  boys  but  for  girls. 
He  respected  the  natural  ability  of  the  pupil,  and  ad- 


260  fflSTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

vocated  professionally  trained  teachers.  He  believed 
that  elementary  work  was  most  difficult,  and  that 
therefore  the  teachers  of  elementary  schools  should 
have  the  smallest  number  of  pupils  and  be  paid  best. 
Estimate. — The  aristocracy  of  his  age  and  English 
conservatism  helped  to  defeat  the  early  realization  of 
Mulcaster's  advanced  realism.  The  humanistic  secon- 
dary schools,  of  which  he  was  himself  so  large  a  part, 
were  still  too  well  intrenched  in  the  English  mind  to 
permit  much  revolt,  but  his  advanced  views  on  pri- 
mary education — especially  his  emphasis  on  the  use  of 
the  mother  tongue  and  expert  pedagogy — entitle  him 
to  a  place  side  by  side  with  his  more  famous  contem- 
porary, Bacon,  the  father  of  English  realism  in  higher 
education. 

BACON 

Francis  Bacon  (i 561-1626)  first  formulated  the 
principles  of  modern  sense-realism.  When  he  was 
hardly  twelve  years  old  his  father,  an  officer  of  the 
crown,  sent  him  and  his  brother  Anthony  to  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  Here,  where  he  remained  three 
years,  he  began  to  distrust  the  scholastic  philosophy  of 
Aristotle.  He  now  spent  some  time  in  France  as  an 
attache  of  the  English  embassy,  thus  gaining  valuable 
experience.  After  his  return  he  studied  law,  finishing 
the  course  in  1582.  Two  years  later  he  was  sent  to 
Parliament,  and  from  that  time  forward  he  was  closely 
identified  with  the  fortunes  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who 
called  him  her  "Lord  Keeper,"  and  with  King  James, 
whom  he  served  with  a  zeal  that  cost  him  dearly  in  the 
end.  Busy  as  Bacon  was  with  his  public  offices,  he 
found   time   to    contribute   extensively    to   literature. 


REALISM  261 

In  these  contributions  he  belongs  primarily  to  the  his- 
tory of  philosophy  and  science,  but  deserves  a  unique 
place  in  the  history  of  education  by  reason  of  several 
works  which,  through  the  interpretation  of  educational 
reformers,  powerfully  promoted  sense-realism.  These 
works  were  "The  Advancement  of  Learning"  (1605), 
submitted  in  English,  and  the  ''Novum  Organum" 
(1620),  which,  probably  because  he  failed  to  foresee 
the  future  of  the  English  language,  he  published  in 
Latin.  These  works  were  the  first  and  second  parts 
of  a  greater  work  which  he  had  planned,  and  which  he 
called  the  "Instauratio  Magna."  To  the  former  two 
must  be  added  "The  New  Atlantis,"  an  ideal  social 
fable,  in  which  his  "Solomon's  House"  was  the  proph- 
ecy of  our  modern  research  university. 

"Advancement  of  Learning." — Young  Bacon  had  be- 
come as  dissatisfied  with  the  humanism  of  the  higher 
education  of  his  day  as  with  its  scholastic  search  after 
truth.  The  large  opportunities  which  came  to  him 
for  direct  contact  with  the  life  and  needs  of  his  age 
confirmed  his  early  conclusion  that  the  universities 
were  wofully  behind  time. 

Purposes  of  Higher  Education. — He  held  that  higher 
education  should  have  for  its  purpose,  not  merely 
pleasure  or  preferment,  nor  wealth  of  knowledge  for 
display,  but  rather  the  advancement  of  the  human 
race  through  religion  and  science.  He  would,  as  he 
puts  it,  have  the  universities  work  "for  the  glory  of  the 
Creator  and  the  relief  of  man's  estate." 

Curriculum. — Bacon  did  not  dispute  that  as  a  hand- 
maid to  religion  and  culture  the  study  of  the  ancients 
and  their  tongues  was  important,  but  he  was  op- 
posed to  the  frenzied  worship  of  style  so  common  in 


262  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

his  day,  and  compared  this  excessive  humanism  to 
Pygmalion's  folly.  This  Greek  artist  hated  women, 
but  fell  in  love  with  an  ivory  statue  which  he  had 
made.  The  sciences  were  Bacon's  favorite  studies, 
for  through  them  the  forces  of  nature  could  be  har- 
nessed into  useful  inventions,  thus  promoting  human 
progress,  and,  when  pursued  to  "depth  of  knowledge," 
they  would  "bring  men's  mind  about  to  religion." 

"Novum  Organum." — Bacon  therefore  undertook  to 
formulate  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  proper  method 
of  science,  namely,  induction,  and,  because  he  believed 
that  this  method  was  the  opposite  of  Aristotle's  de- 
ductive "Organon,"  and  unknown  to  Aristotle,  he 
gave  his  new  book  on  methods  the  title  "Novum  Or- 
ganum" (New  Instrument,  or  Method).  In  this  book 
he  condemned  the  "anticipations  of  nature"  (scientific 
imagination)  to  which  the  "^scientists  mentioned  on  a 
previous  page  resorted.  He  urged  that  the  student  of 
nature  should  first  of  all  rid  himself  of  "idols,"  or 
prejudices,  and  that,  not  depending  at  all  upon  imagina- 
tion, the  investigator  should  assemble  and  examine 
specimens  of  the  phenomena  under  consideration,  thus 
arriving  at  the  facts,  or  particular  truths;  and  that 
afterward  he  should  compare  cases  where  a  certain 
effect  was  present  with  similar  cases  where  the  same 
effect  was  absent,  thus,  by  successive  eliminations, 
arriving  at  the  class-truth,  or  law.  Moreover,  he  was 
confident  that  any  careful  investigator  could  arrive 
at  the  same  results,  and  that  thus  great  progress  could 
be  made  with  ease,  and  without  loss  of  time.  "I  have 
held  up  a  light,"  said  he,  when  he  had  finished  this 
book,  "and  the  knowledge  of  nature  which  the  world 
will  thus  acquire  will  be  power." 


REALISM  263 

Although,  as  we  see,  Bacon  had  missed  the  very 
essence  of  induction,  namely,  scientific  imagination, 
or  hypothesis,  and  its  confirmation  by  subsequent 
trials,  his  brilliant  treatment  of  the  subject  and  his 
commanding  position  in  the  world  had  a  very  wonder- 
ful effect  on  thinkers,  and  helped  to  usher  in  science 
in  the  modern  sense.  This  effect  was  probably  height- 
ened by  his  prophetic  "New  Atlantis." 

"The  New  Atlantis." — Bacon  felt  sure  that  in  giving 
the  world  his  *' Novum  Organum"  he  had  put  an  ideal 
state  within  the  reach  of  the  human  race.  He  por- 
trayed these  expectations  in  his  "New  Atlantis,"  a 
mythical  island  whose  inhabitants  had  in  the  course 
of  ages  attained  to  "ideal  conditions  of  life  and  so- 
ciety." The  pride  of  the  island  was  "Solomon's 
House,"  an  institution  devoted  to  scientific  research 
and  invention.  The  members  of  this  scientific  organ- 
ization were  busy  with  all  sorts  of  experiments  in 
physics,  chemistry,  astronomy,  medicine,  engineering, 
etc.  In  these  experiments  Bacon  prophesied  "the 
artificial  production  of  metals,  the  forcing  of  plants, 
the  grafting  and  variation  of  species,  the  infusion  of 
serums,  vivisection,  telescopes,  microphones,  tele- 
phones, flying-machines,  submarine  boats,  steam- 
engines,  and  perpetual-motion  machines."* 

It  was  out  of  these  Baconian  dreams  that  Ratich 
and  Comenius  developed  their  schemes  of  "pansophia" 
(all  may  know  all),  and  tried  to  grade  "circular"  in- 
struction for  schools. 

*  Graves^  vol.  II,  p.  265. 


264  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

MILTON 

The  marvellous  hold  which  the  ancients  continued 
to  have  on  the  mind  of  men  long  after  the  advent  of 
realism  is  to  be  seen  conspicuously  in  the  great  English 
poet  John  Milton  (1608-1674). 

His  early  education  was  carefully  supervised  by 
tutors.  He  was  an  apt  student,  and  when  in  1624  he 
entered  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  he  was  master 
of  several  languages,  and  had  read  philosophy  and 
literature  extensively.  After  his  college  course  he  re- 
tired to  Horton,  near  Windsor,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self for  six  more  years  to  diligent  study,  and  cultivated 
poetry,  producing  among  other  poems  his  "Comus" 
(1634).  In  1638  he  went  to  Italy,  meeting  Grotius  in 
Paris  and  Galileo  in  Florence.  The  Scottish  war  of 
1639  brought  him  home,  and  in  1640,  the  year  made 
memorable  by  the  acts  of  the  Long  ParUament, 
the  stress  of  times  forced  him  to  open  a  school  on 
Aldersgate  Street,  London,  where  he  maintained  him- 
self in  part  by  teaching  "the  sons  of  some  gentlemen" 
for  about  seven  years.  In  the  meantime  he  became 
an  active  pamphleteer,  the  champion  of  the  Protest- 
ant cause  and  the  Commonwealth.  In  1644,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Samuel  Hartlib,  a  disciple  of  Comenius 
and  a  friend  of  educational  reforms,  he  wrote  the 
"Tractate  on  Education,"  the  brief  treatise  on  which 
rests  his  claim  to  a  place  in  the  history  of  education. 
It  was  much  later  in  life,  when  blindness,  domestic 
sorrow,  and  political  perils  had  ripened  his  genius,  that 
he  gave  the  world  his  immortal  "Paradise  Lost"  (1667) 
and  his  "Paradise  Regained"  (167 1). 

"Tractate  on  Education." — Humanism  and  the  Ref- 
ormation had  conspired  to  produce  Milton,  so  that, 


REALISM  265 

although  he  recognized  the  claims  of  the  living  present, 
he  continued  to  look  at  life  rather  through  the  eyes 
of  the  ancients  than  his  own,  and  thus  failed  to  emanci- 
pate himself  completely.  This  humanistic  realism  is 
the  characteristic  note  of  his  "Tractate  on  Education." 

Ends  in  View.— The.  religious  impulse,  as  we  should 
expect,  was  uppermost  in  Milton,  and  God's  claims 
came  first.  On  this  point  he  said:  "The  end  of  learn- 
ing is  to  repair  the  ruins  of  our  first  parents  by  regain- 
ing to  know  God  aright,  and  out  of  that  knowledge  to 
love  him."  From  what  he  adds,  we  see  that  he  ex- 
pected moral  perfection  to  result  from  faith  and  love. 
His  famous  definition  of  a  complete  and  generous  edu- 
cation shows  plainly  that,  although  religion  and  moral- 
ity were  uppermost  in  Milton's  mind,  he  had  not 
overlooked  life  as  he  found  it  in  his  age.  Said  he:  "I 
call  that  a  complete  and  generous  education  which 
fits  a  man  to  perform  justly,  skilfully,  and  magnani- 
mously all  the  offices,  both  public  and  private,  of  peace 
and  war."  He  evidently  used  the  word  "justly"  to 
call  attention  to  social  relations  and  moral  obligation. 
His  realism  is  evident  in  the  use  of  the  word  "skilfully," 
for  he  connects  it  with  the  practical  pursuits  of  peace 
and  the  patriotic  services  of  war.  Nor  can  it  be 
doubted  that  in  the  use  of  the  word  "magnanimously" 
Milton  had  in  mind  the  promising  young  men  of  higher 
station  who  should  occupy  positions  of  trust  and  honor 
in  life,  and  that  for  such  responsible  leadership  the 
highest  possible  preparations  should  be  made. 

Curriculum. — The  ambitious  course  of  studies  which 
Milton  outlined  for  the  select  young  men  whom  he 
had  in  mind  shows  how  faithfully  he  kept  all  ends  in 
view,  and  at  the  same  time  how  devoutly  he  still  wor- 


266  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

shipped  the  ancients.  The  classics  were  to  constitute 
the  basis  of  the  ambitious  course  which  Milton  pro- 
posed, and  to  the  content  of  these  that  of  the  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  even  Italian,  was  to  be  added  for 
general  culture.  This  classical  training  was  to  be 
supplemented  with  an  extensive  course  in  applied 
mathematics,  and  later  on  with  an  extensive  training 
in  the  natural  and  social  sciences,  including  history 
and  law.  Philosophy  and  theology  were  to  top  the 
structure.  And  all  these  subjects,  including  those  of 
the  sciences  and  applied  mathematics,  were  to  be 
studied  out  of  books,  and  to  make  the  matter  worse, 
out  of  the  books  of  the  ancients.  Milton  did  not 
forget  music,  foreign  travel,  and,  in  harmony  with  his 
own  custom,  as  well  as  in  obedience  to  the  needs  of 
the  times  in  which  he  lived,  he  proposed  strenuous 
physical  training,  in  which,  true  to  his  bias  for  the 
past,  he  would  combine  what  was  best  in  Sparta  and 
Athens. 

Methods. — Milton  calculated  that  the  boys  whom 
he  had  in  mind  could  finish  the  course  which  he  pro- 
posed in  his  ''Tractate"  in  nine  years,  and  maintained 
that  an  "academy,"  where  the  course  could  be  com- 
pleted without  change  of  residence,  was  preferable  to 
the  conventional  separation  of  the  secondary  school 
from  the  university. 

As  an  introduction  to  the  ambitious  classical  course 
which  he  proposed,  Milton  recommended  the  so-called 
intensive  plan  of  studying  Latin,  Greek,  and  other 
languages,  asserting  that  in  this  way  Latin  and  Greek 
might  be  "learned  easily  and  delightfully  in  one  year." 

Experience  had  taught  him  the  importance  of  adapt- 
ing the  assignment  of  tasks  to  the  capacity  of  students, 


REALISM  267 

and  he  vigorously  condemned  the  custom  of  requiring 
immature  students  to  work  on  themes  and  orations 
that  taxed  even  mature  students.  He  valued  an 
atmosphere  of  good-will,  and  would  have  the  teacher 
cultivate  cordial  relations  between  himself  and  the 
students,  thus  reducing  discipline  to  a  minimum. 

Estimate. — It  is  true  that  the  course  which  Milton 
proposed  is  impossible  for  boys  who  are  not  Miltons, 
and  that  as  a  preparation  for  real  life  it  is  too  bookish, 
but  his  lofty  conception  of  the  possibilities  and  destiny 
of  man  will  entitle  him  to  the  niche  in  fame  which  he 
will  always  occupy,  and  we  understand  why,  inspired 
by  his  lofty  conceptions,  the  English  Puritans  of  his 
age  adopted  the  academy  ideal  both  at  home  and  in 
America. 

RATICH 

Among  the  pioneers  of  sense-realism  was  Wolfgang 
Ratke  (i 571-1635),  whose  Latinized  name  Ratichius 
has  come  down  to  us  shortened  into  Ratich. 

He  was  born  at  Wilster,  a  small  town  in  Holstein, 
Germany.  After  a  classical  course  in  the  Hamburg 
Gymnasium,  he  studied  for  the  ministry  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Rostock,  but,  owing  to  some  defect  in  speech 
which  would  keep  him  from  success  in  the  pulpit,  he 
decided  to  devote  himself  to  educational  reforms.  In 
the  meanwhile  he  had  returned  to  his  native  town  to 
perfect  himself  in  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  mathematics. 
In  1603  he  went  to  Amsterdam,  Holland,  where,  as 
a  private  teacher,  he  tried  for  eight  years  to  give  shape 
to  new  methods  of  teaching  the  languages.  Mean- 
while, however,  he  had  spent  time  in  England,  where, 
as  it  appears,   he   became   acquainted   with   Bacon's 


2GS  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

work  "The  Advancement  of  Learning"  and  the  un- 
derlying philosophy.  Encouraged  by  this  Baconian 
confirmation  of  his  own  ideas,  he  gave  them  more 
definite  form,  and  looked  about  for  patrons  who  should 
make  it  possible  for  him  to  realize  his  dreams. 

Response  to  Appeals. — Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange, 
before  whom  he  laid  his  plans  to  reform  education, 
was  willing  that  Ratich  should  try  the  new  method 
on  a  large  scale,  but  only  in  the  teaching  of  Latin. 
Unwilling  to  submit  to  limitations,  Ratich  carried  his 
secret  to  Basel  and  Strassburg,  as  well  as  to  several 
courts,  in  search  of  a  patron,  but  his  efforts  were  un- 
availing. 

Frankfort. — He  now  returned  to  Germany  and  ad- 
dressed an  appeal  to  the  German  princes  then  assem- 
bled (1612)  at  Frankfort  for  an  imperial  Diet.  In 
this  memorial  he  insisted  that  the  young  should  learn 
to  read  and  write  their  own  language  before  other 
languages,  and  promised  by  the  help  of  God  to  show 
how  both  old  and  young  might  acquire  Latin,  Greek, 
and  other  languages  in  a  much  shorter  time;  how 
schools  might  be  established  in  which  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences might  be  taught  in  High  German,  or  any  other 
living  language;  and  how  by  reducing  a  whole  coun- 
try to  the  same  language,  uniformity  in  government 
and  religion  could  be  gradually  and  peaceably  estab- 
lished. 

The  pretensions  of  this  memorial  attracted  much 
attention.  A  commission  of  learned  men  was  ap- 
pointed to  look  into  Ratich's  claims,  and  great  scholars 
like  Helvicus  became  his  champions.  He  succeeded 
in  securing  the  approval  of  two  universities,  Giessen 
and  Jena.     Several  professors  gave  up  their  positions 


REALISM  269 

and  devoted  themselves  to  writing  text-books  based 
on  Ratich's  ideas.  These  professors  went  with  him 
to  Augsburg  when  that  city,  in  1614,  called  him  to 
assist  in  reforming  the  schools.  He  looked  upon  his 
methods  as  a  discovery,  and  would  not  permit  his 
coworkers  to  publish  anything  about  these  methods 
without  his  consent.  The  Augsburg  experiment  was 
abandoned  at  the  close  of  the  year. 

The  Kothen  Experiment. — The  Duchess  Dorothy 
of  Weimar  finally  became  interested  in  Ratich's  re- 
forms, and  took  lessons  in  Hebrew  from  him  just  to 
test  his  methods.  She  was  so  highly  pleased  that  she 
persuaded  her  brother,  Prince  Ludwig  of  Anhalt- 
Kothen,  to  give  Ratich  the  opportunity  to  prove  his 
methods  on  a  large  scale. 

Preparations. — To  begin  with,  a  band  of  teachers 
sworn  to  secrecy  were  instructed  in  the  new  art  by 
Ratich  himself.  Then  a  printing-house,  provided  with 
type  in  six  different  languages,  was  opened  for  the 
pubHcation  of  books.  After  that  schools  furnished  with 
costly  appliances  were  added,  and  some  five  hundred 
boys  and  girls  were  collected,  and  handed  over  to 
Ratich,  who  would  of  course  work  wonders. 

Methods. — The  work  was  organized  into  six  grades. 
In  the  three  lowest  only  the  mother  tongue  was  used; 
Latin  was  taken  up  in  the  fourth  and  Greek  in  the 
sixth.  Arithmetic,  singing,  and  religion  were  added 
to  the  languages.  The  plan  required  that  the  teacher 
of  the  lowest  grade  should  be  an  affable  man  who  should 
"form  the  speech  of  these  young  pupils  by  daily 
prayer,  short  biblical  proverbs,  and  easy  conversations; 
and  correct  by  constant  practice  the  faults  acquired 
out  of  school." 


270  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

In  teaching  the  mother  tongue  Ratich  began  with 
the  alphabet,  calling  attention  to  the  form  and  the 
name  of  the  letter  as  he  drew  it  slowly  on  the  black- 
board, and  associated  it  with  objects,  as  the  o  with  a 
ring.  The  pupil  was  then  required  to  draw  the  letter 
and  name  it.  Any  interesting  book  like  Genesis  was 
used  to  teach  reading.  The  teacher  read  the  book  for 
the  class,  going  over  each  chapter  twice,  the  pupils 
following  with  eye  and  finger.  Afterward  each  chap- 
ter was  mastered  separately,  the  teacher  reading  first 
and  pupils  next,  each  pupil  reading  four  lines.  When 
the  children  had  learned  to  read,  the  study  of  gram- 
mar was  begun.  Here  the  parts  of  speech  and  all  other 
lessons  were  taught  by  means  of  illustrations  and  skil- 
ful explanation.  When  Latin  was  taken  up,  grammar 
followed  reading,  as  in  the  mother  tongue,  and  the 
same  methods  were  employed.  In  short,  all  instruc- 
tion was  illustrative,  or  inductive. 

Principles. — Ratich  governed  himself  and  his  as- 
sistants by  maxims,  or  rules,  which,  as  we  must  now 
admit,  need  only  be  brought  into  fuller  harmony  with 
psychology  to  make  them  safe  rules  for  all  time. 
Among  them  are  the  following: 

1.  Follow  the  order  of  "nature."  There  is  a  natural 
sequence  along  which  the  mind  moves  in  acquiring 
knowledge.  The  teacher  should  study  this  sequence, 
and  base  instruction  on  his  knowledge  of  this  sequence. 

2.  In  teaching  any  subject,  keep  at  a  thing  until  it 
sinks  in  and  is  thoroughly  understood.  This  repeti- 
tion rule,  so  prominent  in  the  pedagogy  of  the  Jesuits, 
ends  in  deadening  monotony,  unless,  as  we  know,  the 
old  and  the  new  are  so  woven  into  each  other  that 
reason  is  kept  even  more  busy  than  memory.     Perhaps 


REALISM  271 

this  is  what  Ratich  had  in  mind  when  he  proposed  that 
nothing  should  be  learned  by  heart,  and  nothing  by 
compulsion  or  constraint. 

3.  In  order  that  the  attention  of  the  learner  may  not 
be  diverted  by  the  language,  ''teach  everything  first 
in  the  mother  tongue."  In  this  maxim  Ratich,  like 
Mulcaster,  put  up  a  noble  protest  against  the  unnatural 
custom  of  Sturm  and  the  Jesuits,  and  became  the 
prophet  of  the  future. 

4.  We  should  proceed  from  one  study  to  another 
by  likeness  of  data,  or  as  Ratich  puts  it  himself,  "uni- 
formity in  all  things."  This  was  the  secret  upon 
which  he  relied  in  the  Frankfort  proposition  to  teach 
the  languages  in  a  shorter  time.  He  saw  what  we  see 
to-day,  that  whatever  we  know  of  any  subject  should 
be  used  in  the  acquisition  of  related  subjects. 

5.  We  should  always  make  sure  that  the  thing  we 
wish  to  teach  is  really  understood  before  we  attempt 
to  teach  its  properties  and  accessories.  We  violate 
this  very  fundamental  principle  when  we  try  to  teach 
the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  before  the  child 
knows  the  sounds  for  which  they  stand. 

6.  We  should  oblige  the  pupil  to  learn  all  facts 
through  his  own  examination  of  individuals,  or  cases, 
and  all  class-truths  by  comparison  of  cases,  or  induc- 
tion. This,  as  the  reader  will  recognize,  is  Ratich's 
interpretation  of  Bacon's  philosophy  as  applied  to 
pedagogy,  and  is  evidently  an  extreme  position,  for 
it  would  deny  the  educational  value  of  all  testimony 
and  expert  authority. 

Failure. — Ratich  failed  completely  at  Kothen,  and 
later  at  Magdeburg,  not  because  he  was  really  on  the 
wrong  track,  but  for  a  number  of  reasons  over  which 


272  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

he  had  no  control,  and  for  other  reasons.  To  begin 
with,  he  was  too  far  ahead  of  the  times  in  his  ideas, 
and  promised  Prince  Ludwig  more  than  he  could  hope 
to  accomplish  in  the  time  agreed  upon.  Then,  too, 
he  was  wofully  deficient  in  that  good  judgment  which 
the  head  of  a  school  needs  in  his  dealings  with  colleagues 
and  subordinates. 

Estimate. — Although  Ratich  failed  in  his  efforts  to 
organize  schools,  he  paved  the  way  for  men  like  Co- 
menius  and  Pestalozzi,  who  avoided  his  extremes,  and 
carried  out  with  great  skill  those  dreams  of  Ratich 
which  rested  upon  solid  foundations.  All  the  hopes 
of  sense-realism  in  education  found  in  him  a  voice 
that  commanded  attention. 

COMENIUS 

In  John  Amos  Comenius  (1592-1670)  the  pan- 
sophism  of  Bacon  found  its  most  ardent  disciple  and 
sense-realism  in  education  its  ablest  exponent. 

Comenius  (Komensky)  was  born  in  Moravia,  Aus- 
tria. His  parents,  as  he  tells  us,  died  when  he  was  a 
child,  and  he  was  brought  up  by  guardians  in  the  sim- 
ple faith,  earnest  piety,  and  missionary  zeal  of  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  a  branch  of  Protestant  Christi- 
anity. He  received  the  meagre  training  in  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  catechism  which  the  schools 
of  his  times  offered;  but,  for  some  reason  or  other,  it 
was  not  until  he  was  sixteen  that  he  began  to  study 
Latin.  He  was  then  old  enough  to  feel  that  there  was 
something  seriously  wrong  in  the  method  of  teaching 
Latin. 

At  the  college  of  Herborn,  where  he  began  to  study 


REALISM  273 

for  the  ministry,  the  cyclopaedist  Alsted  came  into  his 
life,  and  Ratich,  with  whose  works  he  became  ac- 
quainted, inspired  him  with  the  ambition  of  doing  some- 
thing worth  while  on  his  own  account.  He  completed 
his  education  at  Heidelberg,  and,  being  too  young  to 
preach,  he  taught  school  for  four  years,  thus  acquiring 
valuable  preparatory  experience.  In  1616  he  was  or- 
dained to  the  Moravian  ministry,  and  entered  upon 
his  duties  at  Fulneck.  Here,  in  connection  with  his 
pastoral  duties,  he  took  charge  of  a  school  that  had 
just  been  established,  and  began  to  think  about  edu- 
cational reforms.  He  had  married,  and  for  two  years 
led  an  active  and  happy  life,  little  dreaming  that  these 
years  were  to  be  his  last  in  his  native  land. 

Untiring  Activity. — The  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618- 
1648)  laid  its  heavy  hands  upon  his  country.  In  16  21 
the  Spaniards  plundered  Fulneck,  and  Comenius  lost 
all  his  property.  "Instigated  by  the  Jesuits,  the  Aus- 
trian Government  proscribed  the  evangelical  pastors, 
and  forced  them  to  flee.  Comenius  took  refuge  for  a 
time  in  his  native  mountains,  but,  as  persecution  waxed 
hotter,  he  fled  to  Lissa,  in  Poland.  On  crossing  the 
border  he  devoutly  knelt  and  prayed  God  that  the 
truth  might  not  be  quenched  in  his  native  land." 

'*  Didactica  Magna." — At  Lissa  he  became  identified 
with  the  Moravian  Gymnasium,  probably  as  rector. 
Thus  favored  in  his  ambition  to  do  something  for  the 
cause  of  education,  he  took  up  the  study  of  the  best 
educational  writers  of  his  age.  Ratich  and  Bacon  ap- 
pealed to  him  especially,  and  inspired  him  to  attempt 
something,  as  he  himself  puts  it,  "that  might  rest  upon 
an  immovable  foundation."  The  result  was  his  first 
great  work,  the  "Didactica  Magna,"  devoted,  as  the 


274  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

title  suggests,  to  educational  principles.  Although  this 
book  was  not  published  until  long  afterward,  and  even 
then  attracted  but  little  attention,  it  laid  the  founda- 
tions upon  which  he  built  his  whole  career,  and  antici- 
pated most  of  the  great  conclusions  of  modern  peda- 
gogy. The  book  covers  thirty-three  chapters,  in  which 
he  sets  forth  how  schools  could  be  founded  **in  all 
parishes,  towns,  and  villages  of  every  Christian  king- 
dom, where  the  entire  youth  of  both  sexes,  none  being 
excepted,  shall  quickly,  pleasantly,  and  thoroughly 
become  learned  in  the  sciences,  pure  in  morals,  trained 
to  piety,  and  in  this  manner  instructed  in  all  things 
necessary  for  the  present  and  for  the  future  life."  In 
other  words,  Comenius  advocates  (i)  compulsory  edu- 
cation (2)  for  both  sexes,  and  (3)  makes  the  govern- 
ment responsible  for  schools  whose  (4)  purpose  shall  be 
intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual  development  of  the 
individual  (5)  through  courses  and  (6)  methods  (7) 
based  upon  the  nature  of  the  child  and  his  needs  both 
(8)  in  the  present  and  the  (9)  future  life. 

"Jamia." — In  1631  Comenius,  to  carry  out  his 
"Didactica  Magna"  in  reforming  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing Latin,  wrote  a  little  book  which  made  him  and  the 
little  Polish  town  where  he  lived  known  throughout 
Europe  and  beyond.  He  called  it  "  Janua  Linguarum 
Reserata,"  or  "Gate  of  Tongues  Unlocked,"  and,  in 
order  to  grade  the  work,  thus  adapting  it  to  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  learners,  he  divided  it  into  one  hundred 
chapters.  In  order  to  carry  out  the  sense-realism  to 
which  he  was  committed  as  unreservedly  as  Ratich  be- 
fore him  and  Pestalozzi  after  him,  and  the  pansophism 
for  which  he  contended  as  valiantly  as  Bacon,  he  at- 
tempted to  give  the  learner  a  survey  of  the  whole  field 


REALISM  275 

of  knowledge  in  this  little  book.  To  this  end,  he  built 
up  the  content  of  the  chapters  out  of  those  actual  or 
possible  experiences  of  the  learner  which  as  types  rep- 
resented the  whole  circle  of  knowledge,  and  in  the 
same  way,  simply  by  connecting  things  and  experi- 
ences with  their  proper  names,  he  furnished  the  pupil 
with  eight  thousand  root-words  or  types  of  the  Latin 
language  in  one  thousand  sentences.  As  he  puts  it 
himself:  "I  have  classified  the  whole  universe  of  things 
in  a  manner  suited  to  the  capacity  of  boys,  and  I  have 
given  the  corresponding  language." 

"The  success  of  the  'Janua,'"  as  Painter  writes, 
"was  instantaneous  and  immense.  It  was  translated 
into  Greek,  Bohemian,  PoHsh,  German,  Swedish,  Bel- 
gian, English,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  Hungarian, 
Turkish,  Arabic,  and  one  of  the  languages  of  India." 

Pansophia. — Comenius  long  had  in  mind  "the  pub- 
lication of  a  work  that  would  embrace  and  fully  ex- 
hibit the  whole  circle  of  knowledge."  This  would  re- 
quire "the  estabUshment  of  an  institution  in  which  all 
departments  of  learning  should  be  represented  by  the 
ablest  scholars,  and  from  which  this  cyclopaedia  of 
knowledge  was  to  proceed."  The  plan  reminds  us 
strongly  of  "Solomon's  House,"  the  "research  univer- 
sity" of  Bacon's  dream,  "The  New  Atlantis."  In 
1 641  the  English  Parliament,  probably  through  the 
influence  of  his  friend  Samuel  Hartlib,  invited  Comenius 
to  London  to  consider  the  scheme.  England,  however, 
was  on  the  verge  of  the  Civil  War  of  1642,  and  Comenius 
was  doomed  to  disappointment.  He  now  thought  of 
returning  to  Lissa,  but  just  at  this  point  a  rich  Dutch 
merchant,  Lewis  de  Geer,  invited  him  to  Sweden  and 
offered  him  not  only  a  home,  but  means  to  carry  out 


276  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

his  plans.  Soon  after  his  arrival  in  Sweden  the  great 
Oxensticrn  summoned  him  to  Stockholm  for  a  con- 
ference. 

"Metlwdus  Novissinia."—OxenstieTn  and  Chancellor 
Skytc  of  the  Upsal  University  gave  Comenius  an  op- 
portunity to  explain  his  works  and  his  plans,  but  ad- 
vised him  to  give  up  his  pansophic  scheme  for  the  time 
being,  in  order  that  he  might  prepare  a  work  in  which 
his  educational  principles  might  be  embodied  more 
completely  with  reference  to  the  teaching  of  languages. 
His  friend  De  Geer  made  it  possible  for  him  to  under- 
take this  new  task  at  Elbing,  in  Prussia,  where  he 
could  reside  among  Moravian  friends,  exiles  like  him- 
self. Here  after  many  interruptions  and  great  trials 
he  finally  completed  his  "Methodus  Linguarum  No- 
vissima,"  the  "Latest  Method  with  Languages."  In 
this  work,  which  was  really  a  revision  of  his  "Janua," 
he  took  the  greatest  care  to  correlate  things  and  words, 
harmonized  the  grading  of  the  lessons  more  perfectly 
with  the  capacity  of  the  learners,  and  attempted  in 
a  more  thoroughgoing  way  to  teach  Latin  grammar 
by  the  inductive  or  laboratory  method.  In  the  mean- 
time the  Thirty  Years'  War  had  closed,  and  a  commis- 
sion of  learned  Swedes  had  passed  favorably  on  his 
book.  The  senior  bishop  of  the  Moravian  Brethren 
died  in  1648,  and  Comenius  was  chosen  his  successor. 
He  now  returned  to  Lissa,  where  his  new  book  was 
published. 

"Orbis  Pictus." — The  ''Novissima"  added  greatly  to 
his  fame  as  an  educational  reformer,  and,  although  as 
bishop  of  his  people  he  was  weighed  down  with  cares, 
he  found  time  to  accept  a  call  to  reform  the  schools 
of  Transylvania.     There  was  a  settlement  of  banished 


REALISM  277 

Brethren  at  Patak,  and  here  Comenius  worked  from 
1650  to  1654  in  a  school  which  was  to  be  the  model 
for  the  state.  During  this  time  he  worked  out  a  system 
of  ingenious  pictures  with  which  to  illustrate  his 
"Janua,"  thus  producing  the  "Orbis  Pictus,"  or 
*' World  Illustrated,"  his  most  celebrated  book.  He 
sent  it  to  Nuremberg,  Germany,  where  it  appeared  in 

1657- 

Closing  Years. — Comenius  had  returned  to  Lissa 
in  1654.  Two  years  later  the  Poles  plundered  the  town, 
and  he  lost  his  house  and  home  and  manuscripts. 
Escaping  with  his  life,  he  was  a  homeless  exile  again 
until  Lawrence  de  Geer,  son  of  his  old  friend,  offered 
him  an  asylum  in  Amsterdam,  where  he  spent  his  last 
years,  teaching  for  his  maintenance,  and  publishing  a 
complete  edition  of  his  works,  of  which  there  was  a 
large  number.  He  died  in  1670,  at  the  advanced  age 
of  eighty  years,  a  venerable  figure  of  sorrows. 

Principles. — There  were  very  few  phases  of  education 
that  escaped  the  comprehensive  mind  of  Comenius. 

Purpose. — The  one  all-embracing  purpose  of  educa- 
tion, as  Comenius  saw  it,  was  intellectual,  moral,  and 
spiritual  self-development.  In  this  self-development 
the  individual  was  to  attain  to  knowledge,  virtue,  and 
piety.  It  is  plain  to  see  that  he  reconciled  the  claims 
of  the  individual  with  all  the  claims  of  the  social  whole 
and  God. 

Curriculum. — The  curriculum  should  consist  of  the 
whole  circle  of  knowledge.  In  other  words,  the  course 
of  study  should  be  pansophic,  or  cyclopaedic.  To  read- 
ing and  writing  should  be  added  the  liberal  arts,  the 
sciences,  the  languages,  morality,  and  piety.  The 
child  should  touch  all  of  these  the  first  six  years,  and 


278  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

pass  from  the  simple  to  the  complex  in  three  more 
stages  of  six  years  each,  thus  producing  common  schools 
for  all  boys  and  girls  alike,  followed  by  high  schools 
for  those  who  had  the  capacity  and  means,  and  univer- 
sities for  the  great  professions.  Women  were  to  par- 
ticipate in  these  opportunities  because  they  were  hu- 
man beings,  endowed  with  gifts  and  possibilities  of  the 
highest  order.  As  stated  in  the  title  of  the  "Didactica 
Magna,"  the  government  was  to  make  itself  responsible 
for  this  very  democratic  system  of  schools,  and  the 
natural  guardians  of  the  child  were  to  be  compelled 
to  send  the  child  to  school.  This  is  virtually  our 
modern  system  of  education. 

Methods. — In  his  schoolroom  pedagogy  Comenius 
was  distinctly  a  Baconian  sense-realist,  beginning  with 
the  study  of  things  and  proceeding  by  induction. 
Things  and  words  were  to  be  taught  together,  in  the 
mother  tongue.  The  pupil  was  to  learn  other  languages 
by  "likeness  of  data"  or,  as  we  should  say,  by  apper- 
ception. All  rules  were  to  be  taught  by  means  of 
examples  and  practice  was  to  precede  theory,  the  one 
leading  to  the  other,  and  the  two  to  go  together. 

Estimate. — In  his  sense-realism  Comenius  went  rather 
to  extremes.  After  all,  as  Quick  says,  "our  education 
must  enable  every  child  to  enter  in  some  measure  upon 
his  inheritance,  and  not  a  few  of  our  most  precious 
heirlooms  will  be  found  not  only  in  scientific  discoveries 
but  also  in  those  great  works  of  literature  which  the 
votaries  of  science  are  apt  to  despise  as  miserable 
books."  Professor  Laurie  says  that  Comenius  "ac- 
cepted only  in  a  half-hearted  way  the  products  of  the 
genius  of  past  ages."  He  substituted  his  "Janua"  for 
Cicero  and  Vergil. 


REALISM  279 

Then,  again,  Comenius  was  altogether  too  much  in- 
clined to  judge  the  child's  nature  by  that  of  birds  and 
trees  and  seasons,  thus  "substituting  for  the  nature  of 
man  nature  without  man." 

As  we  might  have  expected,  his  Latin  schoolbooks 
failed  because  they  were  only  "briefs"  of  the  world 
and  of  language.  He  was  wrong  in  thinking  that  man 
should  know  all  things,  and  especially  in  the  idea  that 
this  could  be  accomplished  through  briefs  or  "com- 
pends." 

Although  in  one  place  he  says  that  it  is  certain  that 
there  can  be  nothing  in  the  understanding  that  was  not 
first  in  the  senses,  he  saves  himself  from  the  perils  of 
this  extreme  realism  by  assuming  elsewhere  that  reason 
and  revelation  are  also  sources  of  knowledge. 

The  one  thing  which  he  saw  most  clearly,  and  for 
which  alone  he  deserves  a  high  place  in  the  history  of 
education,  is  that  "every  human  creature  should  be 
trained  up  to  become  a  reasonable  being,  and  that  the 
training  should  be  such  as  to  draw  out  God-given 
faculties." 

LOCKE 

John  Locke  (1632-1704),  the  English  philosopher, 
was  a  utilitarian  sense-realist. 

In  the  Making. — He  was  born  in  a  humble  Wrington 
cottage  of  Somersetshire.  While  not  wealthy,  the 
Lockes  were  well  descended.  His  father  was  a  lawyer 
and  served  as  captain  in  the  Parliamentary  army.  The 
boy's  education  was  carefully  supervised.  At  the  age 
of  fourteen  he  was  sent  to  Westminster  School,  a  Puri- 
tan institution,  for  his  preparatory  course,  and  re- 
mained  six  years.     Then   he  entered   Christ   Church 


280  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

College,  Oxford.  The  intellectual  and  moral  commo- 
tion through  which  Cromwellian  England  was  passing 
must  have  stirred  the  soul  of  Locke,  and  he  soon  found 
himself  at  war  with  the  antiquated  humanism  of 
Oxford,  but  finished  his  course  regularly  in  1656.  He 
continued  to  reside  at  Oxford,  and  for  brief  periods 
was  lecturer  on  Greek,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy. 

Later,  about  1658,  perhaps  because  he  was  never 
very  strong,  he  took  up  the  study  of  medicine.  In 
1667  he  became  an  attach6  of  Lord  Shaftesbury's  family, 
first  as  physician  and  later  also  as  tutor  of  that  noble- 
man's son  and  grandson.  After  the  fall  of  Shaftesbury 
Locke  fled  to  Holland,  where  he  remained  for  six  years, 
returning  to  England  in  1689.  In  1691  he  was  wel- 
comed into  the  home  of  Sir  Francis  Masham,  where  he 
lived  the  rest  of  his  days. 

During  his  connection  with  Lord  Shaftesbury  Locke 
found  himself  much  in  company  with  the  brightest  men 
of  his  time.  In  easy  circumstances,  and  relieved  from 
the  professional  work  which  had  hindered  him  in  his 
pursuit  of  philosophy,  he  was  now  free  to  devote  himself 
almost  wholly  to  the  gratification  of  his  highest  aspira- 
tions. Accordingly,  he  was  a  student  most  of  his  life, 
devoting  himself  especially  to  physics,  chemistry,  medi- 
cine, psychology,  philosophy,  politics,  and  even  theology. 
** Truth,"  as  he  found  it  first-hand — or  tried  to — by  long 
and  careful  testing,  was  the  passion  of  Locke's  soul, 
and  much  of  what,  as  tutor  to  "sons  of  gentlemen,"  he 
found  worth  while  in  education,  is  still  worth  while. 

Writings. — There  was  a  close  and  stimulating  in- 
tellectual sympathy  between  Lord  Shaftesbury  and 
Locke,  and  it  was  in  Shaftesbury's  house  that  Locke 
first  planned  his  "Essay  on  Human  Understanding," 


REALISM  281 

in  which  he  sought  after  "the  primal  sources  and  the 
scope  of  human  knowledge,  denying  the  existence  of 
innate  ideas,  presenting  the  mind  as  a  sheet  of  white 
paper  prepared  to  be  written  upon  by  experience  which 
alone  supplies  the  knowledge  there  impressed,  and 
tracing  the  sources  of  all  ideas  to  what  he  calls  sen- 
sation and  reflection."  This  psychological  doctrine, 
known  as  the  "tabula  rasa,"  or  white  paper,  as  the 
reader  will  recall,  was  also  virtually  the  position  of  the 
sense-realist  Comenius.  Locke  put  much  work  on 
this  "Essay"  during  his  voluntary  exile  in  Holland,'and 
published  it  in  complete  form  in  1690.  The  applica- 
tion of  his  sensation-psychology  to  the  process  of  edu- 
cation is  to  be  found  in  a  little  book  on  the  "  Conduct 
of  the  Understanding,"  an  original  companion-piece 
to  the  "Essay,"  which  was  pubUshed  after  his  death. 
In  "Some  Thoughts  on  Education,"  published  in  1693, 
Locke,  as  tutor  of  Lord  Shaftesbury's  son  and  grandson, 
applies  his  sense-reahsm  as  a  mental  process  to  a  utili- 
tarian curriculum  specially  selected  for  the  "sons  of 
gentlemen,"  thus  running  into  a  social  realism  that 
closely  resembles  that  of  Montaigne.  Taking  the  two 
books  together,  we  venture  to  classify  Locke  as  a  utili- 
tarian sense-realist  in  his  views  on  education. 

Educational  Creed.  —  The  opening  sentence  of 
Locke's  "Thoughts  on  Education"  is  his  educational 
creed,  stated  in  the  briefest  possible  way,  and  the  rest 
of  the  book  is  simply  an  elaboration.  These  are  his 
words:  "A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  is  a  short 
but  full  description  of  a  happy  state  in  this  world;  he 
that  has  these  two  has  little  more  to  wish  for,  and  he 
that  wants  either  of  them  will  be  but  little  the  better 
for  anything  else." 


282  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Ends  in  View. — Locke  evidently  believed  that  the 
one  all-comprehending  purpose  of  education  was  the 
most  perfect  adjustment  of  body  and  soul,  and  that  all 
else  in  the  process  and  content  of  education  was  sim- 
ply the  means  to  this  adjustment.  This  adjustment 
coupling  physical  soundness  with  moral  soundness, 
as  well  as  intellectual  soundness  of  mind,  would  make 
all  the  relations  of  life,  individual  and  social,  both 
possible  and  highly  worth  while. 

Physical  Culture. — As  a  physician  who  had  become 
his  own  patient  in  his  early  manhood,  Locke  had  learned 
to  emphasize  hygiene,  and  advocated  what  has  since 
become  known  as  the  "hardening  process."  On  this 
point  he  says:  "The  first  thing  to  be  taken  care  of  is 
that  he  be  not  too  warmly  clad  or  covered,  winter  or 
summer.  ...  I  should  advise  him  to  play  in  the 
wind  and  sun  without  a  hat.  His  diet  should  be  plain 
and  simple.  .  .  .  Let  his  bed  be  hard,  and  rather 
quilts  than  feathers — hard  lodging  strengthens  the 
parts."  When  we  consider  that,  in  the  advocacy  of 
these  and  other  rules,  Locke  had  not  only  himself  but 
also  his  distinguished  pupil  in  mind,  we  cannot  but 
admire  his  courageous  common  sense,  and  this  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  a  too  general  application  of  some  of 
his  rules,  such  as  exposure  to  wet  feet,  would  end  in 
mischief. 

Character. — Much  as  Locke  valued  a  sound  body, 
he  valued  moral  soundness  more,  placing  it  above  all 
else.  Speaking  of  the  selection  of  the  boy's  tutor,  he 
says:  "Seek  out  somebody  who  may  know  how  dis- 
creetly to  frame  his  manners;  place  him  in  hands,  where 
you  may,  as  much  as  possible,  secure  his  innocence, 
cherish  and  nurse  up  the  good,  and  gently  correct  and 


REALISM  283 

weed  out  all  bad  inclinations,  and  settle  in  him^ood 
habits.  This  is  the  main  point;  and,  this  being  pro- 
vided for,  learning  may  be  had  in  the  bargain." 

But,  as  in  his  views  on  physical  culture,  so  in  charac- 
ter building,  the  process  was  to  be  habituation,  the 
indefatigable  submission  of  inclinations  to  the  control 
of  reason,  until  reason  becomes  master  of  desires.  On 
this  point  he  writes  in  his  "Thoughts":  "I  would  ad- 
vise that,  contrary  to  the  ordinary  way,  children  should 
be  used  to  submit  their  desires,  and  go  without  their 
longings,  even  from  their  very  cradles."  "The  great 
principle  and  foundation  of  all  virtue  and  worth  is 
placed  in  this:  That  a  man  is  able  to  deny  himself  his 
own  desires,  cross  his  own  inclinations,  and  purely 
follow  what  reason  directs  as  best,  though  the  appetite 
lean  the  other  way." 

Unfortunately,  "to  follow  what  reason  directs  as 
best"  did  not  mean  what  we  now  mean  by  moral 
reason,  or  conscience,  but  rather  what  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  success  in  life  best.  In  a  "gentleman's  son" 
this  rule  would  probably  reduce  moral  motive  to  "sense 
of  honor,"  or  social  advantage,  or  the  "price"  in  politics. 
This  is  utilitarian  realism  with  a  vengeance. 

Intellect. — Independent  as  his  "Essay"  shows  Locke 
to  be  in  "thinking,"  he  is  powerfully  influenced  by 
utility. 

Curriculum. — In  the  curriculum  which  he  recom- 
mends for  the  sons  of  gentlemen  in  his  "Thoughts,"  he 
follows  Milton  and  Montaigne  very  closely.  The  boy's 
intellectual  education  is  to  begin  with  such  useful 
studies  as  reading,  writing,  and  drawing  in  the  vernac- 
ular. Arithmetic,  geography,  history,  geometry,  lan- 
guages, and  other  studies  are  to  be  added  as  the  boy's 


284  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

life  may  require.  He  should  also  travel  if  possible, 
but  under  the  supervision  of  a  safe  tutor. 

Teaching  Process. — When  dealing  with  the  mental 
process  of  the  learner,  and  the  order  in  which  the  vari- 
ous subjects  are  to  be  mastered,  Locke,  as  his  "Con- 
duct" shows,  and  as  his  "Essay"  would  lead  us  to  be- 
lieve, was  as  thoroughgoing  a  sense-realist  as  Bacon, 
Ratich,  and  Comenius.  When,  for  example,  the  boy 
is  able  to  take  up  a  foreign  language,  it  was  to  be  the 
language  of  his  neighbor — in  the  case  of  the  English 
boy,  French.  This,  as  we  recall,  was  the  idea  of 
Comenius.  Latin  might  be  studied  after  the  neigh- 
boring language.  Like  Comenius,  he  would  correlate 
content  studies  with  the  study  of  the  languages.  On 
this  point  he  says:  "At  the  same  time  that  he  is  learn- 
ing French  and  Latin,  he  may  also  be  entered  in  arith- 
metic, geography,  history,  etc.  For  if  these  be 
taught  him  in  French  or  Latin,  ...  he  will  get  a 
knowledge  of  i these  sciences,  and  the  languages  to  boot." 
Greek  might  be  taken  up  at  leisure  in  the  years  of 
manhood. 

As  we  should  expect  from  his  "Essay,"  he  distinctly 
recommends  in  his  "Conduct"  that  all  instruction 
should  take  the  form  of  direct  observation  followed  by 
comparison  or  reflection.  The  learning  process  should 
afford  pleasure,  thus  serving  as  a  stimulus;  and  mental 
growth  should  be  secured  by  adding  something  new  to 
the  old,  or,  as  we  should  say,  by  apperception.  All 
these  recommendations  make  Locke  an  advocate  of 
child-study  in  the  professional  training  of  teachers. 

Formal  Discipline. — According  to  Locke— and  this 
point  was  long  overlooked — the  only  "royal  road"  to 
human  efficiency,  whether  of  body  or  mind,  is  vigorous 


REALISM  285 

training,  or,  as  we  now  say,  "discipline."  Hence  he 
advocates  the  hardening  process  in  physical  culture,  the 
rational  mastery  of  desires  in  morals,  and  the  gymnastic 
study  of  such  subjects  as  languages  and  the  mathe- 
matics for  intellectual  excellence.  On  this  point  he 
says  in  his  " Conduct":  "Would  you  have  a  man  reason 
well,  you  must  use  him  to  it  betimes,  exercise  his  mind 
in  observing  the  connection  of  ideas  and  following 
them  in  train.  Nothing  does  this  better  than  mathe- 
matics, which  therefore  I  think  should  be  taught  all 
those  who  have  the  time  and  opportunity,  not  so  much 
to  make  them  mathematicians  as  to  make  them  rea- 
sonable creatures,  .  .  .  that  having  got  the  way  of 
reasoning  which  that  study  necessarily  brings  the  mind 
to,  they  might  be  able  to  transfer  it  to  other  parts  of 
knowledge  as  they  shall  have  occasion." 

His  selection  of  subjects  is  evidently  based  on  the 
conviction  that  the  efficiency  which  the  body  or  mind 
acquires  by  exercise  on  subjects  especially  adapted  to 
the  purpose  extends  itself  over  a  larger  area  than  that 
to  which  the  body  or  mind  applied  itself  in  particular. 
This  doctrine  of  "formal  discipline,"  or  "educational 
gymnastics,"  became  a  great  pet  of  psychology  and 
pedagogy,  but  has  lost  much  of  its  reputation  by  the 
contention  of  modern  psychology  that  efficiency  ac- 
quired in  the  mastery  of  any  particular  task  or  subject 
extends  beyond  that  task  or  subject  only  to  the  extent 
that  the  task  mastered  is  a  type  of  the  task  in  ques- 
tion. The  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  has  thus  been 
largely  displaced  by  that  of  "likeness  of  data,"  but 
psychologists  like  Angell  and  Judd  show  that  the  for- 
mer doctrine  is  not  wholly  "  a  myth,"  and  that  pedagogy 
must  continue  to  distinguish  between  content  studies 
and  disciplinary  studies. 


286  fflSTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Estimate. — Although  Locke  spoke  only  for  the  "sons 
of  gentlemen,"  and  failed  utterly  to  provide  for  the 
masses,  he  called  the  attention  of  the  world  to  the 
importance  of  the  practical  in  education  as  perhaps 
no  one  else  had  done  before  him,  and  he  contended 
vaUantly  for  an  efficiency  that  can  be  attained  only 
through  hardness  and  difliculty,  thus  placing  himself 
solidly  against  all  softness  and  weakness.  This  posi- 
tion was  both  his  glory  and  his  shame,  for  the  "heart" 
— the  feelings — against  which  he  fought,  are  God- 
given  and  indispensable  to  human  happiness  and  hu- 
man power. 

He  was  read  more  on  the  Continent  than  in  England, 
and  such  men  as  the  brilhant  Rousseau  extended  the 
English  philosopher's  influence  to  educational  theory 
in  general  and  to  child-study  in  particular.  His 
doctrine  of  "formal  discipline,"  greatly  modified,  has 
come  down,  still  powerful,  to  the  twentieth  century. 

INTLUENCE   OF   REALISM 

Realism  left  its  impress,  more  or  less  permanently, 
on  the  general  practice  of  education. 

Germany. — In  .  Germany,  where  French  court  life 
began  to  be  the  passion  of  the  nobility,  academies  for 
the  nobles,  called  "Ritterakademien,"  sprang  up  toward 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Here  Latin  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  and  religion  received  much  less  atten- 
tion than  in  the  humanistic  gymnasiums,  and  the  em- 
phasis was  put  on  physical  culture  and  accomplish- 
ments, together  with  modern  languages,  military  sci- 
ence, and  mathematics,  thus  adapting  the  content  of 
education  to  the  regime  for  which  social  realism  con- 


REALISM  287 

tended,  and  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War  these  insti- 
tutions grew  rapidly  in  number,  although  they  were 
finally  absorbed  into  the  orthodox  gymnasium  system. 
Richelieu,  the  great  prime  minister  of  Louis  XIV, 
established  similar  institutions,  but  they  never  rose 
to  anything  like  importance. 

England. — When  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1662) 
closed  the  secondary  schools  and  universities  to  dis- 
senters, and  threw  more  than  two  thousand  non- 
conformist clergymen  out  of  their  livings,  some  of 
these  clergymen  turned  to  teaching  to  support  them- 
selves, and  to  supply  the  new  needs  of  education. 
Thus  sprang  up  "academies"  patterned  after  the  ideal 
of  Milton's  ''Tractate."  Inasmuch  as  the  first  purpose 
of  these  academies  was  to  train  ministers,  Latin  and 
Greek  became  the  very  backbone  of  the  curriculum, 
but  a  programme  of  social  realism  consisting  of  mathe- 
matics, natural  and  social  sciences,  modern  languages, 
and  especially  the  mother  tongue,  was  honored  side 
by  side  with  the  main  subjects.  Locke's  "Thoughts" 
(1693)  added  new  impulse  and  content  to  these  Puritan 
academies,  and  after  the  Act  of  Toleration  (1689)  they 
were  regularly  incorporated. 

America. — The  first  impulse  that  led  to  the  found- 
ing of  schools  in  the  American  colonies  was  the  religious 
impulse,  and  it  reproduced  European  humanism,  but 
the  programme  of  social  realism  and  sense-realism 
eventually  found  favor  and  brought  the  Miltonian 
Academy.  Franklin's  Academy,  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
(1751),  established  with  the  set  purpose  of  preparing 
youth  not  merely  for  college,  but  for  Hfe  in  a  new 
country,  offered  courses  in  natural  science,  mathematics, 
drawing,  and  English.     Similar  institutions  were  estab- 


288  HISTORY ;  OF  EDUCATION 

lishcd  elsewhere,  especially  in  the  New  England  col- 
onics. The  whole  subject  will  come  up  for  fuller  dis- 
cussion in  connection  with  education  in  the  United 
States. 

REFERENCES 

I.  Spofford's  "Library  of  Historical  Characters." 
3.  Montagu's  "Life  of  Bacon." 

3.  Pattison's  "Milton." 

4.  Monroe's  "Comenius." 

5.  Courtney's  "Locke." 

6.  Quick's  "Educational  Reformers." 

7.  Barnard's  "German  Teachers." 

8.  Williams'  "History  of  Modern  Education." 

9.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

10.  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  III. 

II.  Leitch's  "Practical  Educationists." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  did  the  popularity  of  humanism  begin  to  wane  in  the 
seventeenth  century?  What  new  interest  now  took  hold  of 
Europe?  For  what  curriculum,  method,  and  discipline  did 
realism  call? 

2.  Distinguish  three  kinds  of  educational  realism  from  each 
other  and  account  for  their  simultaneous  presence. 

3.  Discuss  the  productive  impulse  which  realism  gave  to 
scientific  research  and  Uterary  activity. 

4.  Account  pretty  fully  for  Rabelais's  realism,  and  state  as 
fully  as  possible  the  connection  of  ideas  set  forth  in  his  books. 

5.  Account  pretty  fully  for  Montaigne's  realism  and  compare 
his  connection  of  ideas  with  those  of  Rabelais.  Measure  the 
influence  of  both  critics  on  current  practice,  and  trace  them 
as  far  as  possible. 

6.  Inquire  as  fully  as  possible  into  the  reasons  for  the  sense- 
reahsm  of  Mulcaster,  and  state  as  fully  as  possible  the  connection 
of  ideas  which  he  held  on  the  purpose  and  means  of  education. 

7.  Find  the  reason  for  Bacon's  realism  in  the  Elizabethan 
Age.    What  college  reforms  did  he  advocate  in  his  books? 


REALISM  289 

8.  State  the  connection  of  ideas  which  Bacon  set  forth  in 
each  of  his  famous  books.  What  was  Bacon's  influence  on  his 
own  times  and  future  ages? 

g.  Gather  up  the  personal  experiences  and  course  of  English 
events  that  helped  to  make  Milton,  and  account  for  his  famous 
"Tractate." 

10.  What  significant  words  did  Milton  use  in  defining  educa- 
tion? Why?  Compare  his  ideas  with  those  of  Bacon  on  the 
purpose,  curriculum,  and  methods  of  colleges.  Compare  his 
influence  with  that  of  Bacon. 

11.  What  right  had  Ratich  to  expect  that  Prince  Maurice 
would  respond  to  his  appeals?  What  ambitious  propositions 
did  he  then  carry  to  Frankfort?  Why  did  Prince  Ludwig 
finally  take  him  up?  Explain  his  preparations  for  work,  his 
inductive  method,  the  principles  upon  which  he  founded  his 
labors,  and  his  failure. 

12.  How  may  we  account  for  the  pansophism  and  sense- 
realism  of  Comenius?  Account  for  his  presence  at  Lissa,  and 
explain  the  books  which  he  wrote  there.  What  defeated  his 
pansophic  scheme  in  London  and  Stockholm?  What  was  the 
relation  of  his  "Methodus  Novissima"  and  his  "Orbis  Pictus" 
to  his  "Janua"?  State  his  views  pretty  fully,  and  estimate 
his  greatness. 

13.  Gather  up  the  various  educative  experiences  which  helped 
to  give  Locke's  realism  such  a  practical  turn.  Account  for  his 
famous  books.  How  far  does  modern  psychology  confirm  his 
"tabula  rasa"  doctrine?  State  Locke's  brief  educational  creed, 
and  set  forth  as  fully  as  possible  his  views  on  physical  culture, 
character,  course  of  studies,  and  languages.  Explain  his  doc- 
trine of  "formal  discipline,"  and  consult  present-day  psychology 
as  to  the  correctness  of  his  views.  Which  of  Locke's  conten- 
tions hold,  and  to  what  extent? 

14.  What  were  the  conspicuous  fruits  of  realism  in  Germany, 
England,  and  America? 


PART   V 

MODERN  TIMES 

CHAPTER  XV 

NATURALISM 

The  many-sided  mental  emancipation  which  the 
Renaissance,  and  the  Reformation  as  a  child  of  the 
Renaissance,  had  promised  was  doomed  to  temporary 
defeat  in  the  seventeenth  century.  This  result  came 
about  through  the  repression  into  which  Puritanism 
in  England  and  America,  Jansenism  in  France,  and 
Pietism  in  Germany,  had  hardened.  Thus  two  tyrants 
now  reigned  instead  of  one,  namely,  repression  and 
formalism.  The  former  forbade  all  spontaneity,  the 
latter  forbade  originality.  In  the  meantime,  even  the 
revolutions  of  1649  and  1688  could  not  prevent  the 
development  of  the  covert  and  open  absolutism  of  the 
Georges  (17 14-1830),  and  France  continued  to  writhe 
in  pain  under  the  absolutism  of  the  Bourbons,  Louis 
XIV  (1643-1715)  and  Louis  XV  (1715-1774),  while 
Germany  was  slowly  but  surely  being  reduced  to  the 
absolutism  of  the  Hohenzollern  militarism  (1640-18 70). 

The  realism  of  the  seventeenth  century,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  an  aristocratic  protest  of  reason  which  suc- 
ceeded in  spots  but  failed  to  make  any  deep  impres- 
sion upon  the  general  practice  of  education. 

The  great  revolt  against  all  forms  of  repression  began 
to  find  a  voice  in  such  men  as  Hobbes,  Locke,  Des- 

290 


Mann 


NATURALISM  291 

cartes,  Voltaire,  Kant,  and  others,  but  it  was  not  until 
1750  that  through  the  brilliant  but  erratic  Rousseau 
and  others  this  revolution  became  a  wide-spread  demo- 
cratic movement  known  as  "naturalism,"  This  eigh- 
teenth-century naturalism  was,  on  the  one  hand,  an 
aristocratic  intellectualism — an  appeal  to  pure  reason 
instead  of  revelation — as  in  Voltaire  and  the  French 
cyclopffidists,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  popular  emo- 
tionalism, as  in  Rousseau.  When  emotionalism  tried 
to  justify  itself,  it  appealed  to  reason,  and  thus  allied 
itself  with  the  intellectual  revolt.  In  education  nat- 
uralism thus  became  a  psychological  movement  of 
vast  power,  into  which  all  previous  reforms  gradually 
merged,  thus  producing  modern  pedagogy  and  secular 
schools. 

ROUSSEAU 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (171 2-1778)  was  not  only  the 
eloquent  exponent  but  also  the  extreme  personification 
of  eighteenth-century  "naturalism." 

In  the  Making. — Rousseau  was  born  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland.  He  inherited  the  romantic  and  mer- 
curial temperament  of  his  Parisian  father,  a  watch- 
maker, and  the  morbid,  sentimental  disposition  of  his 
mother,  a  Protestant  clergyman's  daughter.  The 
mother  died  at  Jean  Jacques's  birth,  and  he  was  brought 
up  by  an  indulgent  aunt.  When  the  boy  was  only 
six  the  father  began  to  sit  up  with  him  night  after  night 
to  read  sentimental  novels,  a  stock  of  which  the  mother 
had  left,  thus  adding  fire  to  the  inherited  emotionality 
and  precocious  imagination  of  the  child.  In  little  more 
than  a  year,  when  the  novels  had  all  been  devoured,  he 
turned  to  the  more  sensible  library  of  his  grandfather, 


292  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  clergyman.  Here  he  found  biographies  like  Plu- 
tarch's "Parallel  Lives,"  and  the  standard  histories  of 
the  times,  which  made  a  profound  impression  upon 
the  boy,  making  him  still  more  "impatient  of  restraint," 
as  he  afterward  said,  and  waking  in  him  the  strong 
desire  to  champion  the  cause  of  the  poor  and  oppressed. 

Jean  Jacques  was  sent  to  school  in  a  village  just 
outside  of  Geneva,  where  he  remained  two  years,  and 
where  his  love  of  nature,  already  waked,  became  almost 
a  passion.  Returning  to  Geneva,  he  spent  several 
years  of  his  young  boyhood  in  idleness  and  dreams,  and 
then  four  years  in  unfortunate  apprenticeships,  and 
several  more  in  menial  service,  never  staying  long  any- 
where. During  these  unfortunate  years,  often  sadly 
marred  by  passion  and  moral  weakness,  he  lived  much 
with  nature,  and  became  acquainted  with  the  sorrows 
of  the  poor,  but  managed  to  obtain  a  little  education 
here  and  there. 

At  the  age  of  nineteen,  Madame  de  Warens  took  him 
into  her  home  in  Savoy,  and  he  remained  ten  years, 
during  which  time  he  acquired  some  knowledge  of 
Latin,  music,  science,  and  philosophy.  Presently 
Rousseau  drifted  into  Paris,  where,  as  the  result  of  a 
new  and  sorry  attachment,  some  sense  of  responsibility 
began  to  develop  in  him  in  the  necessary  effort  to  earn 
a  Uvelihood. 

It  was  the  age  of  Louis  XV.  Life  at  the  court  was 
elaborately  conventional,  wholly  artificial,  and  un- 
speakably dissolute.  As  a  result  the  upper  class  of 
society  everywhere  became  slave  to  a  system  of  conduct 
and  etiquette  that  was  anything  but  natural.  The  com- 
mon people  and  peasants  suffered  every  degradation. 
The  air  became  thick  with  protest,  and  the  conviction 


NATURALISM  293 

began  to  take  shape  that  the  only  cure  for  the  woes 
of  the  world  was  a  "return  to  nature."  It  was  in  this 
atmosphere  that  Rousseau  reached  middle  life.  Every- 
thing in  him — ancestry,  experience,  and  education — 
conspired  to  make  him  the  champion  and  personifica- 
tion of  this  return  to  nature  for  which  there  was  such 
wide-spread  and  passionate  longing. 

Writings. — The  pent-up  revolution  in  Rousseau's 
breast  drove  him  to  literary  production,  first  as  a 
mode  of  livelihoo4,  and  then,  in  passionate  earnestness, 
as  the  advocate  and  exponent  of  revolution  in  society 
and  education.  He  first  leaped  into  fame  through  a 
prize  essay  on  "The  Progress^  the  Sciences  and  Arts," 
in  which  he  tried  to  prove  tKat  progress  in  civilization 
was  to  blame  for  existing  oppressions  and  corruptions. 
A  similar  essay  on  "The  Origin  of  Inequality  Among 
Men'i||^llowed  in  1753.  Presently,  finding  conven- 
tional Paris  too  oppressively  artificial  and  repressive, 
he  withdrew  to  the  village  of  Montmorency,  where, 
after  a  period  of  unpardonable  lapses,  he  produced  by 
1762  three  books  that  startled  France  and  Europe. 
The  first  of  these  was  a  novel,  "The  New  Heloise," 
in  which  he  pleaded  for  the  primitive  simplicity  and 
peace  of  rural  life;  the  second  was  his  essay  on  political 
ethics,  the  "Social  Contract,"  in  which  he  pleaded  for 
an  ideal  state,  in  which  government  should  be  vested 
in  the  general  will  of  the  people;  and  the  third,  his 
famous  novel  "Emile,"  in  which  he  advocated  a  system 
of  education  that  would  restore  man  to  his  proper 
place  in  nature.  In  his  last  years,  when  he  began  to 
look  in  upon  himself,  Rousseau  became  his  own  biog- 
grapher,  morbidly  revealing  even  the  inmost  secrets 
of  his  checkered  career,  but  contributing  a  valuable 


294  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

treatise  on  introspective  psychology  at  the  same  time. 
It  is  to  his  "Emile"  that  we  must  turn  more  specially. 

"Emile." — The  great  theme  of  this  wonderful  book 
is  education  "according  to  nature."  Rousseau  makes 
the  announcement  in  the  opening  sentence:  "Every- 
thing is  good  as  it  comes  from  the  hands  of  the  Author 
of  nature;  but  everything  degenerates  in  the  hands  of 
man." 

Assuming  the  truth  of  this  statement,  Rousseau 
contends  that  the  child  develops  by  stages;  that  we 
should  permit  the  child  to  be  himself  as  much  as  pos- 
sible in  each  stage  of  development,  and  that  he  should 
be  brought  up  as  far  away  from  the  contaminating  in- 
fluence of  conventional  society  as  possible.  The  Emile 
of  Rousseau's  imagination  is  therefore  brought  up  in 
the  country,  under  the  wise  but  negative  supervision 
of  a  tutor,  and  his  education  is  completed  in  four  periods, 
to  each  of  which  a  part  of  the  book  is  devoted.  A  fifth 
book,  or  part,  is  devoted  to  the  education  of  a  wife  for 
Emile.  The  "Emile"  is  a  brilliant  attack  on  the  con- 
ventional repression  and  empty  formality  of  education 
as  Rousseau  found  it  prevalent,  and  a  powerful,  though 
frequently  foolish,  plea  for  an  education  that  should 
be  natural  and  spontaneous. 

Infancy. — The  first  book  of  the  "Emile"  is  devoted 
to  the  exposition  of  fundamentals,  as  just  noticed,  and 
to  the  education  of  Emile  from  his  birth  to  the  age  of 
five  years.  In  these  first  years  nature  wisely  makes 
Emile  the  protege  of  his  parents,  and  they  should  obey 
nature  in  providing  Emile  with  wholesome  food,  plenty 
of  play,  fresh  air,  and  sleep,  and  clothing  that  will  not 
hamper  free  movement  or  growth.  For  much  of  this 
advice  Rousseau  is  evidently  indebted  to  Locke. 


NATURALISM  295 

Childhood. — From  the  age  of  five  to  twelve  Emile 
will  want  to  spend  much  of  his  time  in  outdoor  life. 
Let  him  run,  jump,  climb,  swim,  shout,  etc.,  to  his 
heart's  content.  It  is  "nature"  at  work  building  the 
boy's  body.  Let  him  follow  his  own  inclinations  as 
much  as  possible  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
Natural  curiosity  will  teach  him  to  use  his  senses  and 
to  use  them  to  the  best  advantage  in  the  development 
of  his  intellect  and  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  He 
will  discover,  almost  without  his  tutor's  instructions, 
how  to  measure,  weigh,  and  draw  things,  and  how  to 
help  himself  even  in  the  dark.  The  intellectual  devel- 
opment for  which  Emile  is  ready  at  this  time  of  life 
is  hindered  rather  than  helped  by  instruction  in  read- 
ing, writing,  history,  and  literature.  The  only  moral 
instruction  for  which  he  is  ready  is  that  which  he  gets 
through  the  discipline  of  natural  consequence,  and,  if 
left  to  himself,  he  will  not  even  so  much  as  ask  if  there 
be  a  God. 

The  extremes  to  which  Rousseau  goes  in  these  recom- 
mendations betray  an  astonishing  ignorance  of  the 
facts  in  the  case. 

Boyhood.— Yrom  the  age  of  twelve  to  fifteen  Emile's 
rapidly  ripening  intellect  is  ready  for  vigorous  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge,  but,  apart  from  the  benevolent 
guidance  of  a  tutor,  his  progress  will  still  be  most  satis- 
factory if  he  is  permitted  to  follow  the  natural  impulses 
of  boyhood.  The  course  of  observations  which  Emile 
will  have  made  by  this  time  leads  up  to  investigations 
and  comparisons  in  the  world  of  the  senses.  In  other 
words,  Emile  is  mentally  ready  for  the  study  of  nature 
and  life  as  these  present  themselves  to  him  through  the 
senses  or  experience.     Real  experience  will  still  serve 


296  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

his  purposes  better  than  books.  Rousseau,  however, 
makes  one  exception  to  this  rule  in  favor  of  "Robinson 
Crusoe,"  which  is  to  be  the  first  book  that  Emile  reads, 
because  he  finds  ideal  self-help  in  this  hero.  This  book 
will  give  him  "a  knowledge  of  the  natural  needs  of 
man,  and  of  the  means  of  providing  for  them,  and  is  a 
fine  incentive  to  participation  in  manual  work.  Emile, 
in  fact,  learns  during  this  period  the  trade  of  cabinet- 
making — for  its  economic  value  in  providing  a  liveli- 
hood, if  necessary;  for  its  social  value  in  enhancing 
the  dignity  of  labor;  and  for  its  educational  value  in 
developing  skill  and  in  keeping  the  body  sufficiently 
exercised." 

In  these  recommendations,  plausible  as  they  look, 
Rousseau  isolates  science  from  the  valuable  support 
of  literature  and  history  as  means  to  ends  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  intellect,  and  betrays  a  lamentable 
ignorance  of  books  as  tools.  The  stupidity  with  which 
he  continues  to  outlaw  morals  and  religion  from  the 
boy's  life  is  little  less  than  abominable. 

Youth. — Up  to  the  age  of  fifteen  Emile,  according  to 
Rousseau,  has  not  been  seriously  conscious  of  human 
relationships.  Now,  however,  he  wakes  up  to  this 
consciousness  with  something  like  a  start,  and  for  five 
years  or  more  nature  sends  him  to  this  school  of  human 
relationships,  social  and  moral,  with  an  imperative- 
ness that  brooks  no  opposition.  He  will  still  need  his 
benevolent  tutor  to  guard  him  against  the  perils  of 
society,  but  he  must  continue  to  learn  by  experience 
rather  than  from  others,  except  in  extreme  cases. 
And  now,  according  to  Rousseau,  Emile  also  discovers 
the  presence  of  God  in  nature,  and  adds  Him  to  his 
necessary  relationships,  but  his  need  of  God  is  rather 
one  of  heart  than  head. 


NATURALISM  297 

In  this  psychological  analysis  of  youth  Rousseau 
penetrates  the  very  mysteries  of  adolescence  at  high 
tide,  but  fails  entirely  to  understand  that  religion  and 
morals  are  natural  co-ordinates  of  all  stages  of  normal 
mental  development. 

Sophie. — The  finale  of  Rousseau's  *'Emile"  is  the 
fifth  book,  which  he  devotes  to  the  education  of  Sophie, 
Emile's  "wife-to-be."  According  to  Rousseau,  Sophie 
exists  only  for  Emile,  and  in  education  her  individu- 
ality must  be  submerged  into  that  of  Emile.  She  is 
to  grow  up  strong  and  robust,  and  must  be  taught 
singing,  dancing,  embroidery,  and  the  like,  in  order  to 
please  Emile.  Her  education  in  religion  and  morals 
should  begin  early  for  the  sake  of  her  home. 

This  part  of  Rousseau's  "Emile"  hardly  deserves 
serious  attention,  and  is  so  manifestly  a  violation  of 
Rousseau's  own  proclamation  of  the  rights  of  individu- 
ality that  we  can  hardly  forgive  the  effrontery.  More- 
over, it  betrays  an  unpardonable  ignorance  of  woman 
as  woman. 

Estimate. — In  Rousseau's  "Emile"  the  protests  of 
reformers  like  Comenius,  Montaigne,  and  especially 
Locke,  against  the  tyranny  of  prescription  in  education 
became  uncompromising  revolution.  He  would  boldly 
cut  loose  from  all  positive  instruction  and  discipline, 
relying  on  nature  instead  of  nurture,  and  rather  on 
the  child's  impulses  than  on  his  reason  as  the  true  in- 
terpreter of  his  needs  and  destiny. 

The  revolutionary  courage  of  the  book  and  the 
brilliancy  of  Rousseau's  style,  rather  than  the  sanity 
and  force  of  his  contentions,  compelled  his  readers  to 
stop  and  think.  And  those  who  stopped  to  think  saw 
that  although  Rousseau  was  not  an  expert  guide  him- 
self, he  was  looking  for  such  a  guide.     In  short,  Rous- 


298  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

seau  was  the  prophet  who  foresaw  such  reformers  as 
Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and  Herbart,  who  gave  education 
its  new  bent  toward  a  true  psychology,  science,  and 
society.  From  his  day  down  to  the  present  pedagogy 
has  emphasized  the  pupil  rather  than  the  curriculum, 
and  nature  rather  than  tradition  in  the  curriculum, 
and,  by  rebound  from  Rousseau's  ''Emile,"  the  phil- 
anthropic social  aspects  of  education,  applying  these 
conclusions  to  boys  and  girls  alike. 

France  refused  to  take  Rousseau's  "Emile"  seriously 
in  educational  practice.  He  had  offended  the  state 
by  his  bold  attacks  on  monarchy,  and  the  church  by 
his  life  and  religion.  It  failed  to  make  much  of  an 
impression  upon  the  practical  common  sense  of  England. 
It  remained  for  the  German  Basedow  to  found  a  school 
in  which  the  *'Emile"  should  be  put  to  the  actual  test. 

BASEDOW 

Rousseau's  "Emile"  came  into  Basedow's  life  at 
the  psychological  moment,  and  thus  made  him  its 
first  great  practical  interpreter. 

In  the  Making. — Johann  Bernhard  Basedow  (1723- 
1790)  was  the  talented  son  of  a  Hamburg  wigmaker. 
He  refused  to  follow  his  father's  vocation  and  ran 
away  from  home,  attaching  himself  as  servant  to  a 
gentleman  in  Holstein.  This  man  soon  discovered 
the  remarkable  ability  of  the  boy,  and  persuaded  his 
father  to  send  him  to  school  to  the  Hamburg  Gym- 
nasium, where  he  came  under  the  moulding  influence 
of  Reimarus.  Presently  friends  entered  him  at  the 
University  of  Leipzig  for  a  course  in  theology,  but, 
after  a  rather  irregular  life,  and  a  serious  lapse  from 


NATURALISM  299 

trinitarianism  to  deism  in  religion,  he  left  the  univer- 
sity. 

In  1749  he  became  private  tutor  in  Holstein  to  the 
children  of  Herr  von  Quaalen.  It  was  with  these  aris- 
tocratic pupils  that  he  first  developed  his  famous 
methods  of  teaching  through  conversation  and  play, 
connecting  instruction  with  surrounding  objects  in  the 
house,  garden,  and  fields.  In  less  than  four  years  his 
distinguished  patron  secured  a  professorship  for  him 
in  the  Ritterakademie  at  Soroe,  Denmark,  where  he 
lectured  for  eight  years,  when  the  government,  on  ac- 
count of  the  serious  offense  which  he  gave  by  his  writings 
on  religion,  was  obliged  to  transfer  him  to  the  gym- 
nasium at  Altona. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Rousseau's  "Emile" 
came  into  Basedow's  life  as  a  confirmation  of  his 
methods  of  thinking  and  teaching,  and  as  an  inspiration 
to  a  fuller  development  of  his  pedagogy.  The  times 
were  ripe  for  just  such  a  revolution  in  education  as 
Basedow,  inspired  by  the  "Emile,"  was  about  to  under- 
take. "Youth,"  says  Raumer,  "was  in  those  days, 
for  most  children,  a  sadly  harassed  period.  Instruc- 
tion was  hard  and  heartlessly  severe.  Grammar  was 
caned  into  the  memory,  so  were  portions  of  Scripture 
and  poetry.  A  common  school  punishment  was  to 
learn  by  heart  Psalm  CXIX.  Schoolrooms  were  dis- 
mally dark.  No  one  conceived  it  possible  that  young 
children  could  find  pleasure  in  any  kind  of  work, 
or  that  they  had  eyes  for  aught  besides  reading  and 
writing.  The  pernicious  age  of  Louis  XIV  had  in- 
flicted on  the  poor  children  of  the  upper  class  hair 
curled  by  the  barber,  and  messed  with  powder  and 
pomade,  braided  coats,  knee-breeches,  silk  stockings, 


300  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  a  dagger  by  the  side — for  active,  lively  children  a 
perfect  torture."  In  short,  children  were  treated  as 
miniature  adults,  and  education  was  largely  a  matter 
of  instruction  in  deportment. 

Winning  Favor. — When,  therefore,  Basedow  had 
explained  his  hopes  and  plans  to  Bernsdorf,  the  Danish 
minister  of  education,  he  was  allowed  to  devote  his 
whole  energy  to  educational  reforms.  He  began  (1768) 
this  work  with  an  "Address  to  Philanthropists  and  Men 
of  Property  on  Schools  and  Studies  and  Their  Influence 
on  the  Public  Weal."  In  this  address  he  appealed  to 
them  for  money  to  help  him  publish  the  books  which 
he  had  submitted  in  outline  and  to  organize  a  school 
in  which  the  new  ideas  might  be  put  to  the  test.  Prob- 
ably the  most  striking  suggestions  in  the  address  were 
that  the  schools  should  be  secularized  and  nationalized. 
At  any  rate,  the  response  was  prompt  and  gratifying. 
Money  came  to  him  from  all  classes  of  people  and  from 
many  countries.  The  result  was  that  in  1774  he  was 
able  to  publish  the  books  which  he  had  planned.  The 
first  one,  which  he  called  "Elementary  Work,"  was  a 
text-book  somewhat  like  the  "Orbis  Pictus"  of  Co- 
menius,  which  he  had  used  with  his  private  pupils, 
but  powerfully  modified  by  the  naturalism  of  Rous- 
seau's "Emile,"  and  the  second  book,  called  the  "Book 
of  Method,"  a  manual  for  parents  and  teachers,  in 
which  Rousseau's  natural  method  of  learning  everything 
by  experience  was  advocated  with  great  perseverance. 
Foreign  languages,  for  example,  were  to  be  learned  not 
through  grammars  but  through  conversation. 

The  Philanthropinum. — Through  his  son's  tutor, 
Behrisch,  a  friend  of  the  poet  Goethe,  Prince  Leopold 
of  Dessau  became  so  greatly  interested  in  Basedow's 


NATURALISM  301 

plans  that  he  determined  to  found  an  institute  in  which 
they  should  be  put  to  the  test.  Accordingly,  in  1774, 
Basedow  was  called  to  Dessau,  and  under  his  direction 
was  opened  the  famous  "Philanthropinum."  ''Then, 
for  the  first,  and  probably  for  the  last,  time,"  as  Quick 
puts  it,  "a  school  was  started  in  which  use  and  want 
were  entirely  set  aside."  Everything  was  to  be  done 
"according  to  nature."  Love  of  "human  nature," 
as  the  name  of  the  school  implies,  was  to  be  the  domi- 
nating purpose. 

Routine. — The  school  at  Dessau  was  small,  never 
numbering  more  than  fifty  children,  but  representing 
both  the  well-to-do  and  the  poorer  population  of  the 
neighborhood.  They  were  dressed  and  groomed  for 
comfort  and  freedom  of  movement.  Much  valuable 
instruction  was  imparted  in  connection  with  outdoor 
games  and  plays,  and  nature  was  wooed  in  trips  that 
added  much  to  child  happiness.  The  language  of  the 
children  was  the  language  of  instruction,  but  Latin  and 
French  were  also  taught.  The  natural  method  was 
employed,  in  connection  with  acting-games,  pictures, 
drawing,  and  stories.  Other  studies,  like  geography, 
history,  and  arithmetic,  were  not  slighted,  and  the 
methods  employed  resembled  the  language  method. 
Every  boy  was  taught  such  handicrafts  as  turning, 
planing,  and  carpentry;  but,  with  some  deference  to 
social  demands,  the  rich  boy  spent  only  two  hours  a 
day  on  these  exercises,  while  the  boy  who  must  earn  a 
living  by  work  spent  six  hours  on  them.  Nothing  but 
"natural  religion"  was  taught,  the  task  of  teaching 
revealed  religion  being  referred  to  the  home. 

Influence. — The  number  of  pupils  at  Dessau  was 
never  large.     Most  of  the  visitors  were  pleased  with 


302  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

the  interest  and  happy  mood  of  the  pupils.  Even 
Kant,  the  Konigsberg  philosopher,  declared  in  1777 
that  the  experiment  was  "not  a  slow  revolution,"  but 
an  organization  that  by  its  very  plan  must  "throw  off 
all  the  faults"  which  adhered  to  its  beginning.  In  this 
expectation,  as  it  proved,  he  was  disappointed,  but  he 
still  believed  that  the  experiment  was  worth  while 
because  it  paved  the  way  for  better  things. 

Basedow  was  in  many  ways  quite  unfit  for  his  posi- 
tion, and  soon  lost  it.  Campe,  who  succeeded  him, 
withdrew  within  a  year  and  founded  a  similar  school 
in  Hamburg.  Although  the  school  at  Dessau  was 
closed  in  1793,  philanthropinums  began  to  spring  up 
all  over  Germany,  and  some  of  them  had  much  influ- 
ence on  educational  practice  in  general.  One  of  these 
was  established  at  Schnepfenthal  by  Christian  Salz- 
mann  (1744-1811).  This  able  man,  whose  school  still 
lives,  anticipated  many  of  the  reforms  which  Pesta- 
lozzi  afterward  introduced  into  primary  education. 
These  philanthropinums,  together  with  the  attractive 
literature  which  Basedow's  followers  produced,  carried 
the  new  ideas  into  all  parts  of  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land, where  they  became  the  inspiration  of  Pestalozzi, 
Froebel,  and  Herbart.  "Hence,"  as  Doctor  Graves 
says,  "despite  his  visionary  disposition,  his  intemper- 
ance, and  his  irregularity  of  living,  the  reformer  who 
first  attempted  to  embody  the  valuable  aspects  of 
Rousseau's  naturalism  in  the  education  of  Germany 
was  Basedow,  rather  than  Pestalozzi,  who  afterward 
transformed  it  so  much  more  successfully." 

One  result  of  the  naturalism  introduced  into  educa- 
tion by  Rousseau  could  hardly  have  been  anticipated 
by  himself  in  his  fury  nor  by  his  biassed  immediate 


NATURALISM  303 

followers.  The  rationalistic  contemporaries  of  Rous- 
seau— men  like  Hume  and  Voltaire — were  intellectual 
anarchists.  Their  antisocial  philosophy  imperilled  the 
whole  social  structure.  Rousseau's  naturalism,  op- 
posed to  the  intellectual  aristocracy  of  rationalism, 
nevertheless  also  exalted  the  individual  perilously  above 
social  control,  and  both  movements  tended  to  impover- 
ish the  conception  of  God's  moral  and  eternal  suprem- 
acy. Reaction  was  bound  to  follow  such  manifestly 
perilous  extremes,  and  thus  the  final  result  of  this 
double  blow  at  higher  claims  was  a  new  and  more  per- 
fect adjustment  of  all  claims  in  educational  theory  and 
practice. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  Lord's  "Beacon  Lights  of  History." 

3.  Guizot's  "History  of  Civilization." 

4.  Quick's  "Educational  Reformers." 

5.  Compayre's  "History  of  Education." 

6.  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  III. 

7.  Morley's  "Life  of  Rousseau." 

8.  Davidson's  "  Rousseau." 

9.  Lang's  "Basedow." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Into  what  revolt  of  reason  and  emotion  did  realism  grow 
when  individuality  was  curbed  not  only  by  institutional  repres- 
sion and  formalism  but  also  by  heartless  absolutism? 

2.  Outline  the  personal  experiences  and  events  of  the  times 
that  contributed  to  make  Rousseau  the  living  embodiment  of 
"naturaUsm." 

3.  How  did  Rousseau  come  to  write  his  most  celebrated  books, 
and  for  what  did  he  contend  in  each  ? 

4.  What  is  the  great  theme  of  his  "Emile,"  and  how  far  is 
the  naturalism  which  he  advocates  confirmed  or  condemned 
by  modern  psychology  and  the  teaching  of  Christ? 


304  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

5.  Account  for  the  furor  which  Rousseau's  books  produced, 
and  the  condemnation  of  his  books  on  many  sides. 

6.  Why,  in  spite  of  its  very  serious  psychological  and  soci- 
ological errors,  is  Rousseau's  "Emile"  one  of  the  most  notable 
contributions  to  the  cause  of  education? 

7.  At  what  critical  moment  in  Basedow's  life  did  the  "Emile" 
fall  into  his  hands,  and  what  hopes  did  it  inspire  in  him  under 
the  conditions  of  his  times? 

8.  What  patronage  enabled  Basedow  to  undertake  the  writing 
of  pedagogical  books,  and  what  were  his  most  striking  sugges- 
tions? 

9.  How  did  Prince  Leopold  come  to  Basedow's  assistance, 
and  how  were  things  done  in  the  school  at  Dessau?  What  did 
Kant  think  of  Basedow?  Why  did  Basedow  fail?  Was  his 
failure  the  end  of  such  experiments  as  his  philanthropinum  ? 

ID.  What  was  there  in  the  naturalism  which  prompted  all 
such  experiments  that  imperilled  the  whole  social  structure? 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT 

The  great  theme  of  all  Rousseau's  contentions  was 
the  unrestricted  (natural)  self-development  of  the  in- 
dividual through  self-activity.  The  new  conception 
of  education  destroyed  the  long-lived  despotism  of  the 
older  conception  of  education  as  nurture  (prescription 
and  restriction).  These  two  ideas,  as  we  have  seen, 
have  always  been  contending  with  each  other  for  the 
upper  hand,  and  Rousseau  was  only  another  eloquent 
voice  to  whom  the  world  was  inclined  to  listen,  first 
because  he  was  so  eloquent,  and  second  because  the 
things  against  which  he  lifted  his  voice  had  become 
crime  against  the  child.  His  eloquence  inspired  a 
number  of  gifted  spirits  with  the  consuming  desire  to 
study  the  nature  of  the  child,  and  thus  to  psychologize 
education.  Pestalozzi,  with  whom  child-study  was  a 
by-product,  paved  the  way;  Herbart,  who  purposely 
studied  the  mind  of  the  child  at  work,  developed  child- 
study  into  a  science;  and  Froebel,  as  if  by  divine  in- 
junction, carried  this  science  into  the  "holy  of  holies" 
of  childhood.  Thus,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history 
of  education  "elementary  education  supplanted  sec- 
ondary education  as  the  chief  concern  of  those  engaged 
in  either  the  theory  or  the  practice  of  education." 

PESTALOZZI 

Johann  Heinrich  Pestalozzi  (i 746-1827)  was  the 
Christian  interpreter  of  Rousseau's  naturalistic  philan- 
thropinism. 

305 


306  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

In  the  Making. — Pestalozzi  was  born  in  the  beauti- 
ful town  of  Zurich,  Switzerland.  His  father,  a  very 
intelligent  physician,  died  before  the  boy  was  six  years 
old,  leaving  him  to  the  care  of  his  mother.  He  was 
"a  mother's  boy,"  and,  under  the  quiet  piety  of  his 
mother's  house,  he  unfolded  into  a  shy  and  dreamy 
boy,  almost  a  stranger  to  children  of  his  own  age. 

Accordingly,  when  he  first  came  to  school,  the  chil- 
dren dubbed  the  awkward  and  dreamy  but  good- 
natured  youngster  "Harry  Queer  of  Folly ville."  While 
trying  to  compete  with  his  mates  both  in  study  and 
play,  he  was  always  ready  to  do  them  a  good  turn, 
and  everybody  loved  him. 

In  due  time  his  mother  was  able  to  send  him  to  the 
university  of  his  native  town,  where  he  gave  a  satis- 
factory account  of  himself  and  also  became  identified 
with  a  society  of  young  Swiss  patriots  whose  leading 
spirit  was  Lavater,  and  through  which  connections  he 
offended  the  government. 

Pestalozzi  loved  his  grandfather,  a  minister,  at  whose 
home  he  was  always  welcome,  and  where  he  learned 
much  about  the  sorrows  of  the  poor  and  what  a  good 
man  could  do  to  alleviate  their  sufferings.  As  a  result, 
he  prepared  himself  for  the  ministry;  but,  breaking 
down  in  his  first  sermon,  he  concluded  that  he  w^as  not 
naturally  fitted  for  this  sacred  ofHce. 

Afterward,  in  order  that  he  might  plead  the  cause  of 
the  poor  Swiss  in  another  capacity,  he  studied  law; 
but,  influenced  by  Rousseau's  "Emile,"  he  turned  to 
farming,  hoping  to  show  the  Swiss  peasants  how  to 
improve  their  condition,  and  dreaming  at  the  same 
time  of  improving  his  own  fortunes.  Accordingly,  he 
studied  agriculture  for  a  year  in  the  neighborhood  of 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  307 

Berne,  under  a  man  who  had  become  famous  for  his 
innovations.  In  the  meantime,  however,  he  had  won 
the  heart  of  beautiful  Anna  Shultess,  daughter  of  a 
Zurich  merchant,  and  they  were  married  in  1769,  from 
which  time  to  the  end  of  her  life  she  continued  to  be 
his  faithful  and  inspiring  helpmate. 

Neuhof. — He  now  took  up  a  hundred  acres  of  un- 
cultivated land  near  Birr,  built  a  house  on  it,  and  called 
it  "Neuhof"  (new  farm),  and  moved  into  it  with  Anna. 
In  spite  of  his  good  ideas  and  industry,  the  venture 
was  not  profitable,  and  the  bankers  who  had  advanced 
him  money  to  promote  the  experiment  withdrew  their 
support. 

In  the  meantime,  before  he  had  any  doubt  about 
his  success  as  a  farmer,  Pestalozzi  began  to  reproach 
himself  for  having  been  side-tracked  from  his  great 
purpose  to  live  for  his  beloved  Swiss  people.  The 
more  he  thought  about  the  matter,  the  more  convinced 
he  became  that  education  must  be  the  means  to  his 
ends.  The  birth  of  a  son  quickened  his  reflections, 
and,  as  he  tells  us  in  his  ''Journal  of  a  Father,"  he  soon 
realized  that  as  an  educational  ideal  Rousseau's  natu- 
ralism must  be  greatly  modified.  He  began  to  see 
what  Rousseau  had  failed  to  see,  namely,  that  home 
and  love  are  nature's  best  safeguard  and  stimulus  to 
necessary  moral  self-respect  and  self-support,  and  there- 
fore indispensable  to  the  best  possibilities  in  the  child's 
education. 

Accordingly  in  1775,  by  the  help  of  his  good  wife's 
money,  he  undertook  to  convert  Neuhof  into  an  in- 
dustrial school.  He  began  by  inviting  twenty  of  the 
poorest  boys  and  girls  of  the  neighborhood,  giving  them 
a  home,  food,  clothing,  and  love.     The  plan  was  to 


308  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

connect  instruction  in  reading,  writing,  reckoning,  and 
Bible  lessons  with  work  on  the  farm.  In  bad  weather 
both  boys  and  girls  learned  to  spin  and  weave.  He 
hoped  that  the  work  of  the  children  would  help  him 
to  make  ends  meet,  and  thus  serve  the  double  purpose 
of  education  and  living.  The  children  improved  rapidly 
in  body  and  mind,  and  he  took  in  about  thirty  more 
children;  but  the  work  done  by  them,  as  was  to  be 
expected,  was  quite  wasteful,  and  this,  together  with 
the  suspicion  of  the  parents  that  Pestalozzi  was  profit- 
ing at  the  expense  of  the  children,  defeated  his  noble 
purpose,  and  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  the  experiment 
in  1780,  heavily  involved  in  debt. 

A  Soul  Waiting. — The  time  of  trial  had  come  for 
Pestalozzi,  The  Neuhof  house  continued  to  be  his 
home,  but  poverty  would  often  stare  at  him  through 
the  windows,  and  his  soul  was  sometimes  on  the  verge 
of  despair.  Devoted  to  the  great  purpose  of  social 
reform  through  education,  he  took  to  writing  books 
and  pamphlets  which  embodied  his  principles,  relying 
upon  the  meagre  income  of  his  writings  as  a  means  of 
livelihood.  A  year  had  not  passed  when  his  first  book, 
*'The  Evening  Hour  of  a  Hermit,"  came  from  the  press; 
but,  although  the  work  was  a  pretty  complete  state- 
ment of  the  great  principles  to  which  he  had  become 
wedded,  it  attracted  little  or  no  attention.  His  friends 
now  urged  him  to  put  his  thoughts  into  popular  form. 
The  result  was  his  famous  "Leonard  and  Gertrude" 
in  1 78 1,  which  he  finished  in  an  amazingly  short  time, 
writing  between  the  lines  of  an  old  account-book.  His 
friend  Iselin  published  the  book,  and  he  found  him- 
self suddenly  the  idol  of  all  who  could  read  German, 
for  he  had  succeeded  in  depicting  with  sympathy  and 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  309 

love  the  sorrows  of  his  people,  and  pointed  out  the 
cure.  The  story  describes  the  degraded  social  condi- 
tions of  Bonnal,  an  imaginary  Swiss  village,  and  the 
changes  which  one  simple  peasant  woman  brought 
about.  The  name  of  this  wonder-worker  was  Gertrude. 
"She  reforms  her  drunkard  husband,  educates  her 
children,  and  causes  the  whole  community  to  adopt  her 
methods."  The  schoolmaster  who  presently  arrives 
learns  from  her  how  to  conduct  the  village  school. 
Even  the  village  pastor  also  catches  her  spirit  and  em- 
bodies her  counsel  in  his.  The  government  finally 
becomes  interested  and  concludes  that  Bonnal  should 
become  the  model  for  the  whole  country.  The  popu- 
larity of  his  "Leonard  and  Gertrude"  prompted  him 
to  add  new  parts,  but  never  with  much  success.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  he  had  become  so  famous,  and 
knew  so  many  famous  men,  among  them  Goethe, 
Herder,  and  Fichte,  and  his  name  had  been  mentioned 
in  France  with  those  of  Wilberforce,  Kosciusko,  and 
Washington,  he  and  his  family  were  often  without  food 
and  fire  at  Neuhof. 

Stanz. — In  1798  Switzerland  was  overrun  by  the 
French,  everything  was  remodelled  after  the  French 
pattern,  and  Switzerland  became  a  "republic"  with 
"directors."  Pestalozzi  set  to  work  to  serve  the  new 
government  with  his  pen.  The  directors  were  pleased, 
and  when  they  asked  him  what  they  could  do  for  him, 
he  told  them  very  simply  that  what  he  wanted  most 
was  to  be  a  schoolmaster.  When  some  Swiss  communi- 
ties refused  to  follow  the  French  lead,  French  troops 
were  let  loose,  and  the  city  of  Stanz  on  Lake  Lucerne 
was  terribly  devastated.  It  became  the  duty  of  the 
directors  to  come  to  the  rescue  of  the  unfortunates. 


310  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

among  them  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  orphans. 
The  directors  thought  of  Pestalozzi  and  sent  him  to 
take  charge  of  the  children,  giving  him  an  unfinished 
convent  for  the  "home,"  and  here  in  January,  1799,  he 
housed  himself  and  about  forty  children.  "The  diffi- 
culties were  immense.  At  first  Pestalozzi  and  all  the 
children  were  shut  up  day  and  night  in  a  single  room." 
Under  these  conditions  he  could  do  little  else  but  look 
after  immediate  physical  necessities,  and  try  to  com- 
fort the  children  in  their  plight.  They  did  not  always 
understand  him,  but  he  gradually  won  them  and  the 
distrustful  community  by  sheer  love  and  faithfulness. 
As  the  weeks  passed  into  months,  and  the  number  of 
children  in  his  care  increased  to  seventy  or  more,  they 
learned  not  only  to  call  him  "father,"  but  peace  and 
friendship  sprang  up  among  the  children  themselves. 
Pestalozzi  knew  how  to  utilize  ,the  whole  life  of  the 
school  to  secure  these  results.  As  at  Neuhof,  he  tried 
to  connect  study  with  manual  labor,  the  school  with  the 
workshop,  and  to  make  them  one  thing,  but  he  found 
it  difiicult  because  stafT,  materials,  and  tools  were 
wanting.  In  the  absence  of  school  apparatus  and 
books  he  resorted  much  to  direct  observation,  availing 
himself  skilfully  of  any  objects  within  reach,  including 
nature  as  he  found  it  out-of-doors.  Thus,  while  he 
sought  to  teach  reading,  writing,  numbers,  drawing, 
and  natural  history,  he  had  come  to  see  the  greater 
importance  of  a  full  and  varied  mental  development 
through  suitable  sense-activity,  attention,  and  judg- 
ment. Under  his  love  and  psychologic  insight  the 
children  were  becoming  new  creatures  in  body,  char- 
acter, and  intellect. 

With  still  greater  success  in  sight,  Pestalozzi  was  dis- 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  311 

mayed  to  find  in  June,  1799,  that  the  French  soldiers, 
after  a  brush  with  the  Austrians,  required  the  use  of 
his  buildings  as  a  hospital,  and  his  complete  abandon- 
ment of  the  school.  Nevertheless,  it  was  none  too  soon, 
for  Pestalozzi  found  himself  on  the  verge  of  physical 
collapse  from  the  long  strain,  and  recovered  only  after 
resting  in  the  mountains. 

Burgdorf. — Pestalozzi's  sun  was  not  to  set  so  soon. 
Friends  came  to  his  rescue,  and  through  them  he  was 
employed  by  the  town  of  Burgdorf  as  assistant  teacher 
in  a  school  of  which  the  shoemaker  happened  to  be 
the  head.  Unfortunately,  Pestalozzi's  methods  were 
too  new,  and  he  lost  his  position. 

His  friends,  however,  were  wiser  than  the  shoemaker, 
and  through  their  influence  he  became  the  teacher  of 
some  twenty-five  beginners  in  the  burgher  school. 
Here  he  was  allowed  to  have  his  own  way.  He  made 
all  instruction  start  from  what  pupils  observed  for 
themselves,  and  with  his  wonderful  insight  into  chil- 
dren and  their  ways,  he  produced  such  fine  results  in 
language,  numbers,  drawing,  history,  geography,  and 
the  mood  of  the  pupils  that  the  Burgdorf  School  Com- 
mission complimented  him  publicly.  Thereupon  he 
was  promoted  and  put  in  charge  of  about  seventy 
children,  ranging  from  ten  to  sixteen  years  of  age. 
With  these  older  pupils  and  larger  number  he  did  not 
get  along  so  well.  Just  at  this  juncture,  when  he  had 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  art  of  teaching  should 
consist  of  "putting  the  child's  impressions  into  con- 
nection and  harmony  with  the  precise  degree  of  devel- 
opment" which  the  child  had  reached,  Pestalozzi's 
friends  secured  for  him  the  use  of  part  of  the  old  Burg- 
dorf castle,  and  its  gardens.     The  government  had  also 


312  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

invited  some  thirty  children  from  Appenzell  and  their 
young  teacher,  Kruesi,  into  the  castle.  Presently 
Pestalozzi  was  able  to  associate  Kruesi  and  three  or 
four  other  bright  young  teachers  with  himself.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  his  famous  ''Institute,"  or  train- 
ing-school for  teachers.  The  school  was  maintained 
by  voluntary  subscriptions  and  some  support  from  the 
government,  and  both  day-school  pupils  and  boarders 
were  received.  There  never  was  room  for  more  than 
about  one  hundred. 

It  was  under  these  more  favorable  conditions  that 
Pestalozzi  worked  out  the  full  significance  of  the  use 
of  objects  in  the  teaching  of  language,  numbers,  nature, 
and  other  school  subjects,  and  in  1801  he  embodied 
his  conclusions  in  a  book  almost  as  well  known  as  his 
"Leonard  and  Gertrude,"  giving  it  the  title  of  "How 
Gertrude  Teaches  Her  Children,"  and  consisting  of 
letters  to  a  friend,  describing  his  educational  principles. 
The  Institute  attracted  attention  far  and  wide  as  a 
successful  experiment  in  reforming  elementary  educa- 
tion. In  1805  the  restoration  of  cantonal  government 
and  the  need  of  the  building  for  official  purposes  com- 
pelled Pestalozzi  to  move. 

Yverdun. — He  was  forced  to  migrate  to  an  old  con- 
vent near  Berne.  Close  by  was  Hofwyl,  where  Fellen- 
berg  had  established  an  agricultural  school  on  his  large 
estate,  to  carry  out  Pestalozzi's  "Neuhof"  dream. 
Kruesi  and  the  other  teachers  of  Pestalozzi,  recognizing 
that  Fellenberg  had  as  great  a  gift  for  administration 
as  Pestalozzi  had  for  action,  thought  it  would  be  better 
to  merge  the  two  schools,  and  to  submit  to  Fellenberg 
as  responsible  head.  This  arrangement,  however, 
could  not  last  long,  for,  although  Pestalozzi  yielded. 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  313 

he  soon  fretted  under  the  "man  of  iron,"  and  withdrew, 
settling  himself  in  the  castle  of  Yverdun,  near  Lake 
Neuchatel.  Within  a  year  his  old  assistants  followed 
him,  and  thus  arose,  in  1805,  a  still  more  famous  train- 
ing-school for  teachers. 

For  some  years  the  success  of  this  school  was  prodig- 
ious. *' Object  teaching"  became  a  passion,  and  was 
applied  with  great  success  to  all  the  elementary  sub- 
jects. Text-books  organizing  the  content  of  the  vari- 
ous subjects  were  compiled,  and  young  men  came  from 
everywhere,  either  of  their  own  accord  or  sent  by  their 
governments,  to  learn  Pestalozzi's  methods  and  to  catch 
his  inspiration.  Among  these  promising  young  men 
were  Karl  Ritter,  who  thus  became  the  "father  of 
physical  geography";  Herbart,  who  became  the  scien- 
tific exponent  of  child-study,  and  Froebel,  the  founder 
of  the  kindergarten.  For  five  years  or  more  this 
"community"  of  pupils  and  teachers  under  "Father 
Pestalozzi"  was  a  veritable  paradise,  but  in  time  dis- 
sensions began  to  creep  into  the  school,  thus  diminish- 
ing the  efficiency  of  the  movement,  and  gradually 
destroying  the  personal  ascendancy  of  Pestalozzi,  un- 
til at  last,  through  the  evil  genius  of  one  of  the  teach- 
ers, the  school  lost  its  prestige  and  patronage  to  such 
a  degree  that  it  had  to  be  closed,  and  Pestalozzi 
went  sadly  back  to  Neuhof,  where  he  died  two  years 
later. 

Estimate. — Inspired  by  Comenius  and  Rousseau, 
Pestalozzi  became  their  eloquent  interpreter  through 
his  wonderful  love  for  children  and  his  equally  wonder- 
ful insight  into  their  nature.  That  there  were  short- 
comings even  he  himself  recognized  with  chagrin  and 
grief,  but  his  lofty  faith  and  his  sublime  courage  in  the 


314  HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION 

face  of  poverty,  adversity,  and  cruel  defeat  will  for- 
ever command  admiration. 

Principles. — (i)  The  motive  of  all  Pestalozzi's  en- 
deavors was  to  reform  the  social  whole  through  uni- 
versal education.  The  masses  at  the  bottom  of  the 
social  whole  were  to  be  educated  not  only  because  it 
is  best  for  the  classes  higher  up,  but  especially  also 
because  such  redemption  is  the  inherent  right  of  every 
human  being. 

(2)  In  the  accomplishment  of  this  high  and  holy 
purpose  the  method  of  instruction  and  the  means  em- 
ployed must  be  adjusted  to  the  "natural,  progressive, 
and  harmonious  development  of  the  individual."  Ac- 
cordingly, all  instruction  must  begin  with  direct  ob- 
servation, making  it  possible  to  proceed  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  the  particular  to  the 
general,  and  from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

(3)  While  Pestalozzi,  like  Comenius,  assumed  that 
sense-perceptions  are  the  first  steps  to  knowledge,  and 
therefore  that  observation  is  the  basis  of  instruction, 
he  was  not  satisfied  with  the  knowledge  gained  by 
observation  unless  expression  (language)  kept  pace 
with  impression  (ideas)  in  the  power  gained  through 
observation.  This,  as  we  note,  was  going  a  good  deal 
beyond  Comenius,  who,  in  the  use  which  he  m.ade  of 
objects  in  teaching,  apparently  thought  only  of  the 
knowledge  to  be  acquired. 

(4)  In  the  determination  to  grade  instruction,  or 
adapt  the  materials  of  instruction,  that  is,  the  objects 
selected,  to  the  progressive  development  of  the  child, 
Pestalozzi  undertook  to  find  the  natural  "ABC  of 
observation"  for  every  school  subject,  especially  for 
number- work,  geography,  language,  and  drawing.     In 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL   MOVEMENT  315 

other  words,  he  tried  to  analyze  these  subjects  into  their 
elements,  in  order  that  the  learning  process  in  each 
study  might  be  synthetic,  which  he  believed  to  be  the 
natural  process  of  learning.  This  extreme  position 
led  him  to  overemphasize  oral  work  at  the  expense  of 
written  number-work,  and  artificial  synthesis  of  ele- 
ments in  reading  and  drawing  over  the  more  natural 
correlation  of  these  steps.  Nevertheless,  he  correctly 
began  with  "home"  geography  and  worked  outward 
toward  "globe"  geography  as  we  do  to-day. 

(5)  Pestalozzi's  tender  home-relations  as  a  boy  and 
as  a  man  constrained  him  to  believe  that  a  similar  re- 
lation should  exist  between  teacher  and  pupils.  And 
his  conviction  that  mental  development  was  the  pur- 
pose of  education  confirmed  his  natural  inclination  to 
deal  thoughtfully  and  kindly  with  his  pupils,  even  if 
on  occasion  such  kindliness  had  to  give  way  to  punish- 
ments for  moral  reasons.  He  certainly  secured  mar- 
vellous results.  He  literally  turned  the  schoolroom 
into  a  place  of  joy  instead  of  the  place  of  terror  which 
the  nondescript  schoolmasters  of  his  day  and  other 
days  had  generally  made  of  it  under  still  more  non- 
descript physical  and  moral  conditions.  Inasmuch  as 
the  feelings  are  the  springs  of  action,  Pestalozzi's  re- 
spect for  the  pupil's  individuality  must  forever  be  the 
ideal  key  to  success  in  building  the  religious  and  moral 
character  of  boys  and  girls,  and  thus  making  this  the 
supreme  end  in  view  in  education,  higher  in  importance 
beyond  all  measure  than  mere  instruction  or  even 
development  of  intellect. 

Spread  of  Pestalozzianism. — When  Pestalozzi  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  orphans  at  Stanz  in  1798,  he 
could   not  go  back   to   the   ideal   of  juvenile   reform 


316  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

through  industrial  education  to  which  he  had  devoted 
himself  so  largely  at  Neuhof,  but  he  made  every  effort 
to  psychologize  the  methods  of  teaching  the  usual 
school  subjects,  and  continued  to  do  so  at  Burgdorf 
and  Yverdun. 

Fellenherg. — In  the  meantime,  however,  Emmanuel 
von  Fellenberg  (1771-1844),  a  man  of  noble  and  wealthy 
parentage,  had  become  wholly  possessed  with  the  idea 
that  the  wretched  condition  of  the  Swiss  peasantry 
could  be  improved  through  the  kind  of  education  which 
Pestalozzi  had  tried  at  Neuhof.  When  Pestalozzi  had 
to  give  up  his  school  at  Burgdorf  in  1804,  he  and  Fel- 
lenberg formed  a  partnership  near  Berne,  but  soon 
separated  with  mutual  good-will,  Pestalozzi  establish- 
ing himself  at  Yverdun,  and  Fellenberg  at  Hofwyl, 
near  Berne. 

Fellenberg's  fundamental  purpose  was  to  combine 
industrial  education — chiefly  agricultural — with  the 
elements  of  intellectual  education,  and  thus  to  meet 
the  pressing  needs  of  the  masses.  Presently  he  added 
a  "literary  institute"  for  the  sons  of  wealthy  land- 
owners, where  the  ordinary  classical  education  was 
supplemented  by  physical  culture  and  enough  farm 
labor  to  produce  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  the 
masses  and  their  needs.  Various  practical  accessories 
were  added,  such  as  a  printing  establishment,  and  even 
a  school  for  girls  was  organized.  A  special  effort  was 
made  to  prepare  teachers  for  the  country  schools. 
Fellenberg's  idea — Pestalozzian  industrialism  as  an 
integral  part  of  education — has  spread  all  over  the 
world,  and  is  pressing  its  claims  with  ever-increasing 
insistency  not  only  upon  Switzerland,  its  place  of  birth, 
but  upon  Germany,  France,  England,  and  America. 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  317 

Psychological  Pedagogy. — The  psychological  move- 
ment inaugurated  by  Pestalozzi  and  so  powerfully 
pressed  by  his  disciples,  especially  by  Herbart  and 
Froebel,  and  as  fundamentally  inspired  by  Rousseau's 
naturalism,  is  gaining  an  ever-increasing  momentum  in 
the  training  of  teachers,  and  the  sense-realism  to  which 
this  movement  contributed  through  ''object-lessons," 
as  first  emphasized  by  such  innovators  as  Comenius, 
has  eventuated  into  the  very  promising  nature-study 
of  the  present  century.  Germany,  France,  England, 
and  the  United  States  have  vied  with  each  other  to  be 
first  and  foremost  in  this  psychological  movement  and 
its  associated  science  movement.  Among  the  fore- 
most promoters  of  Pestalozzianism,  as  it  comes  to  us 
through  its  Prussian  garb,  were  Horace  Mann  in  his 
(1843)  seventh  "Annual  Report,"  Henry  Barnard  in 
his  publications  as  commissioner  of  education,  and 
Edward  Sheldon  in  his  "Oswego  Movement"  in  i860. 
This  latter  was  a  special  "object-lesson"  movement, 
and  received  the  indorsement  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  in  1865. 

HERBART 

Johann  Friedrich  Herbart  (177 6-1 841)  made  a  sci- 
entific study  of  the  mind  at  work,  and  thus  laid  the 
foundation  of  modern  scientific  pedagogy. 

In  the  Making. — Herbart  was  born  in  Oldenburg, 
Germany.  The  father  was  a  scholarly  public  official, 
and  the  mother  a  woman  of  great  intelligence,  who 
watched  over  the  education  of  her  son  with  special 
care.  Presently  a  tutor  was  employed,  and  the  boy 
early  showed  much  aptness  in   Greek,  mathematics, 


318  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  metaphysics.  He  completed  the  gymnasium  course 
at  Oldenburg  in  six  years,  and  then  entered  the  Univer- 
sity of  Jena  in  1794,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  the 
inspiring  Fichte,  and  remained  three  years. 

Tutor. — He  left  before  graduating  in  order  to  become 
the  private  tutor  of  the  three  sons  of  the  governor  of 
Interlaken,  Switzerland.  It  was  stipulated  that  Her- 
bart  should  give  the  father  written  reports  of  the  prog- 
ress of  his  sons,  and  it  was  probably  due  to  this  require- 
ment that  he  became  a  skilful  observer  of  the  mind  at 
work. 

Visits  Pestalozzi. — While  thus  engaged  for  three 
years  in  Switzerland  he  became  much  interested  in 
Pestalozzi,  whose  Burgdorf  Institute  he  visited,  and 
then  wrote  a  sympathetic  account  of  his  observations. 
It  is  evident  that  his  connection  with  Pestalozzi  led 
to  Herbart's  determination  to  study  the  mental  proc- 
ess more  completely  in  the  interests  of  scientific  peda- 
gogy- 

At  Konigsherg. — In  1809,  after  a  successful  career 
of  several  years  at  Gottingen  as  private  tutor  and  writer, 
he  became  Kant's  successor  at  Konigsherg,  a  place 
of  opportunity  over  which  his  mind  long  lingered  as 
"in  reverential  dreams,"  and  where  he  remained  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century.  Here  in  connection  with  his  chair  of 
philosophy  he  founded  in  1810  a  pedagogical  seminary, 
or  normal  school,  for  advanced  students  in  pedagogical 
problems,  and  he  added  a  practice  school  which  pro- 
vided actual  experience  in  teaching  as  well  as  oppor- 
tunities for  pedagogical  experiments.  He  himself 
taught  classes  in  the  practice  school,  and  had  his  stu- 
dents observe,  until  presently  they  could  take  up  the 
work  where  he  had  begun,  and  give  instruction  under 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  319 

his  direct  observation.  This  was  the  forerunner  of 
"model  schools"  and  "critic  teachers"  in  our  modern 
normal  schools. 

Publications. — Herbart  embodied  the  conclusions  at 
which  he  arrived  through  his  study  of  the  mind  in 
several  important  volumes,  especially  his  "Science  of 
Education"  and  his  "Outlines  of  Educational  Doc- 
trine." 

Herbart's  Pedagogy. — The  distinct  features  of  Her- 
bart's  pedagogy  may  be  conveniently  set  forth  under 
special  paragraphs. 

Ends  of  Education. — Assuming  that  morality  (the 
right  and  the  good),  mounting  in  its  highest  ascent  to 
God,  must  be  regarded  as  the  highest  purpose  of  man, 
the  child  of  God,  and  that,  as  Spencer  so  eloquently 
contended  just  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  (i860),  edu- 
cation must  be  defined  as  "preparation  for  complete 
living,"  Herbart  held  that  this  godlike  morality,  or  holi- 
ness, must  be  regarded  as  the  ultimate,  or  highest, 
object  of  education.  Accordingly,  the  mediate  ob- 
jects of  education  must  be  knowledge  of  God,  faith  in 
God,  and  love  to  Him  as  final  springs  of  action,  or  char- 
acter, and  holiness  as  fruit. 

Curriculum. — Assuming  that  God  reveals  himself  to 
man  through  "nature"  and  through  "man"  himself, 
Herbart  held  that  the  natural  sciences  perfected  by 
mathematics,  together  with  the  social,  or  historical, 
sciences,  consisting  fundamentally  of  language,  litera- 
ture, and  history,  must  constitute  the  essential  cur- 
riculum, or  trunk  line,  of  education.  In  this  "twofold 
ascent"  to  God  and  holiness,  it  is  the  special  function 
of  mathematics  as  the  science  of  exactitudes  to  enable 
the  sciences  of  nature  to  reveal  God  as  infinite  power, 


320  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  the  function  of  history  and  literature  as  portraits 
of  human  achievements  and  human  aspirations  to 
reveal  man  as  the  child  of  God,  and  thus  the  object  of 
His  love.  This  discovered  love  of  God  to  man  would 
supply  the  final  motive  of  moral  conduct  and  make 
for  holiness  (the  "good"  will). 

In  Herbart's  scheme  the  great  fact  of  social  relation 
(relation  between  man  and  man)  is  duly  emphasized, 
while  individuality  is  exalted  by  the  recognition  of 
divine  origin,  and  God  is  glorified  by  the  most  ennobling 
service  on  the  part  of  his  children. 

Method. — According  to  Herbart  this  twofold  ascent 
to  God  and  holiness  made  psychological  pedagogy  the 
great  necessity,  and  this  conclusion,  indeed,  is  his  most 
important  contribution  to  education.  "For  my  part," 
said  he,  "I  have  devoted  every  energy  for  twenty 
years  to  metaphysics,  mathematics,  self-contempla- 
tion, experiments,  and  trials,  in  order  to  find  the  basis 
of  true  psychological  insight.  And  the  prime  motive 
of  these  laborious  investigations  was,  and  is,  above  all, 
my  conviction  that  a  large  part  in  the  huge  gaps  in 
our  pedagogical  science  proceeds  from  a  lack  of  psy- 
chology, and  that  we  must  first  have  this  science,  yea, 
must  beforehand  get  rid  of  the  mirage  called  psychology, 
before  we  can  determine  with  some  degree  of  certainty 
what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong  in  a  single  hour  of  in- 
struction." 

Apperception. — Herbart  agreed  with  Pestalozzi  that 
instruction  must  begin  in  sense-perceptions,  but  real- 
ized what  Pestalozzi  had  failed  to  realize,  at  least  in  a 
scientific  way,  how  the  mind  itself  combines,  relates, 
and  elaborates  successive  acquisitions.  In  other  words, 
he  saw  that  instruction  should  be  the  process  of  causing 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  321 

thought  which  awakes  right  motives,  and  thus  leads  to 
right  actioFx  as  its  sequence.  Accordingly,  in  order  to 
produce  a  ''many-sidedness  of  interest,"  or,  as  we  should 
say,  that  m.any-sidedness  of  "motive"  which  leads  to 
the  many-sidedness  of  ''action"  for  which  the  many 
relations  of  man  to  man,  and  of  man  to  God,  constantly 
call,  the  school  curriculum  must  be  put  together  by 
"apperception,"  that  is,  the  subjects  and  the  lessons 
must  be  brought  into  such  relation  to  each  other  as  to 
help  the  mind  classify,  or  identify,  every  new  experience 
with  all  that  is  already  known  and  that  bears  upon  the 
new.  This  process  of  "mental  preparedness"  for  each 
new  step  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  as  Herbart 
beHeved,  and  as  modern  psychology  shows,  wakes  up 
interest,  and  thus  leads  to  that  pleasurable  mental 
effort  which  is  indispensable  to  mental  growth.  Such 
apperceptive  correlation  of  subjects  and  lessons,  aim- 
ing at  mental  growth  through  the  selective  content  of 
the  curriculum  as  well  as  through  the  naturalness  of 
the  apperceptive  process,  has  rightly  been  called  "edu- 
cative instruction"  by  Doctor  Eckhoff,  and  has  be- 
come one  of  the  great  watchwords  of  modern  education. 
Five  Formal  Steps. — Later  Herbartians,  assuming 
that  the  learning  process  consists  essentially  of  per- 
ception and  apperception,  have  tried  to  reduce  all  com- 
plete instruction  on  any  subject  to  five  formal  steps, 
namely,  preparation,  presentation,  association,  classi- 
fication, and  application.  If,  for  example,  we  should 
wish  to  teach  case  in  grammar,  the  teacher  will  recall 
previous  lessons  on  subjects,  ownership  words,  and  ob- 
jects of  a  sentence  (preparation),  and  then  get  the  class 
to  see  that  this  difference  of  word-functions  in  a  sen- 
tence is  denoted  by  spelling,  or  form,  and  name  this 


322  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

difTerence  of  form  "case"  (presentation).  A  number 
of  examples,  or  illustrations,  may  now  be  compared 
with  the  first  illustrations  (association).  This  com- 
parison is  induction,  and  should  lead  to  definition 
(classification).  The  use  which  the  learner  will  make 
of  his  new  concept  is  deduction  (application). 

It  is  true  that  this  outline,  or  "form"  of  instruction, 
may  become  pedagogical  idolatry,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
avoid  the  conclusion  that  the  steps  in  question  are 
really  the  natural  steps  of  the  mind  at  work  in  any 
complete  lesson. 

Influence. — The  first  great  advocates  of  Herbartian- 
ism  in  Germany  were  Professors  Stoy,  at  Jena,  and 
Ziller,  at  Leipzig. 

Ziller.—ln  1865  Tuiskon  Ziller  (1817-1883)  published 
his  conclusions  in  a  volume  entitled  "The  Basis  of  the 
Doctrine  of  Instruction  as  a  Moral  Force."  He  based 
the  selection  and  sequence  of  subjects  and  lessons  on 
what  has  become  known  as  the  "recapitulation" 
theory  in  biology,  assuming  that  the  mind,  like  the 
body,  repeats  the  stages  of  evolution  in  the  species. 
In  this  attempt  he  made  literature  and  history  the 
core  of  instruction  through  the  first  eight  grades  of 
school,  very  much  in  the  same  way  that  Herbart  had 
done  in  secondary  education.  This  "recapitulative" 
or  "culture-epoch"  application  of  apperceptive  corre- 
lation is  known  as  "concentration." 

Rein. — William  Rein  (1847),  a  pupil  of  both  Stoy 
and  Ziller,  on  becoming  the  head  of  the  pedagogical 
seminary  at  Jena  in  1865,  mapped  out  a  curriculum 
for  the  first  eight  grades  of  school  with  startling  suc- 
cess, thus  making  Jena  the  great  centre  of  Herbartian- 
ism,  from  which  it  spread  as  far  as  the  United  States, 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  323 

where  its  influence  has  been  enlarged  especially  through 
the  writings  of  De  Garmo  and  the  McMurrys. 

Herbartianism  has  succeeded  in  giving  history  and 
literature  a  very  high  place  in  our  school  curriculum, 
and  it  has  stimulated  the  great  educational  bodies  to 
pay  much  attention  to  the  scientific  correlation  of 
school  subjects  in  general.  It  would,  indeed,  be  diffi- 
cult to  overestimate  the  "scientific  good"  which  has 
come  into  pedagogy  through  the  psychological  re- 
searches of  Herbart  and  his  many  able  disciples. 

FROEBEL 

The  psychological  movement  which  began  in  the 
naturalism  of  Rousseau  and  found  its  intuitional  in- 
terpretation in  Pestalozzi  and  its  scientific  develop- 
ment in  Herbart,  reached  the  crest  of  the  wave  in 
Froebel,  the  spiritual  successor  of  Pestalozzi  and  the 
founder  of  the  kindergarten. 

In  the  Making. — Friedrich  Wilhelm  August  Froebel 
( 1 782-1852)  was  born  in  Oberweisbach,  a  village  in  the 
beautiful  Thuringian  Forest  of  Germany.  His  father, 
the  pastor  of  six  village  congregations,  could  give  very 
little  time  to  the  boy's  education.  The  boy  was  only 
a  year  old  when  he  lost  a  good  mother,  and  the  step- 
mother who  came  into  his  life  cared  little  for  him. 
As  a  result  he  spent  most  of  his  time  up  to  the  age  of 
ten  years  in  the  woods,  with  birds  and  flowers  as  com- 
panions, and  received  very  little  other  training.  From 
this  passage  in  his  life  Froebel  later  concluded  that  the 
child's  first  teacher  should  be  a  loving,  sympathetic 
mother. 

At  the  age  of  ten  he  went  to  live  with  his  maternal 


324  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

uncle,  who  sent  him  to  school  for  four  years.  His 
first  day  in  this  school  was  a  great  event.  The  chil- 
dren repeated  the  familiar  Scripture  verse  "Seek  ye 
first  the  kingdom  of  God."  "This  verse,"  as  Froebel 
tells  about  it  himself  forty  years  later,  "made  an  im- 
pression on  me  like  nothing  before  or  since."  He 
learned  the  usual  elementary  subjects,  together  with 
a  little  Latin.  But  the  teacher  could  do  little  with 
the  dreamy  boy,  and  called  him  lazy.  From  this  ex- 
perience Froebel  afterward  drew  the  conclusion  that 
what  a  boy  needs  most  when  he  first  comes  to  school 
is  a  teacher  who  knows  boys. 

At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  taken  home,  and  soon 
afterward  apprenticed  for  three  years  to  a  forester. 
He  was  now  in  his  element,  and,  although  the  forester 
himself  could  help  him  very  little,  the  boy  had  plenty 
of  time,  which  he  utilized  in  the  study  of  languages, 
mathematics,  and  botany,  but  gave  himself  up  mostly 
to  a  deep  and  intimate  communion  with  nature — 
especially  trees  and  plants. 

"When  he  left  the  forest  at  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
seems  to  have  been  possessed  with  the  main  ideas 
which  influenced  him  all  his  life.  The  conception  which 
in  him  dominated  all  others  was  the  unity  of  nature, 
and  he  longed  to  study  natural  sciences  that  he  might 
find  in  them  various  applications  of  nature's  universal 
laws.  With  great  difficulty  he  got  leave  to  join  his 
elder  brother  at  the  University  of  Jena,  and  there  for 
a  year  he  went  from  lecture-room  to  lecture-room, 
hoping  to  grasp  that  connection  of  the  sciences  which 
had  for  him  far  more  attraction  than  any  particular 
science  in  itself."  It  was  here,  too,  that  he  came  under 
the  spiritual  influence  of  Fichte  and  Schelling.     But 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  325 

the  boy's  allowance  of  money  was  small,  and  before  he 
understood  what  was  happening,  he  was  put  into  the 
college  prison  for  nine  weeks  for  a  small  debt,  contracted 
chiefly  by  his  brother.  After  this  sore  trial  he  returned 
to  his  father,  who  now  tried  to  interest  him  in  farming. 
The  failing  health  of  his  father  brought  the  son  home 
again,  and  when  the  father  died,  in  1802,  the  son,  now 
twenty  years  old,  began  to  shift  for  himself.  In  the 
effort  to  make  ends  meet  he  tried  a  number  of  things, 
but,  although  "he  became  more  and  more  conscious 
that  a  great  task  lay  before  him  for  the  good  of  hu- 
manity," he  could  not  find  himself. 

At  Frankfort, — In  1805  he  came  to  Frankfort  with 
the  intention  of  studying  architecture.  Here  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  Doctor  Anton  Griiner,  head  of 
a  Pestalozzian  model  school,  who  recognized  the  talent 
of  the  young  man  and  persuaded  him  to  become  a 
teacher  in  his  institution.  It  was  thus  that  he  finally 
found  himself.  "It  seemed,"  says  he,  "as  if  I  had 
found  something  I  had  never  known,  but  always 
longed  for,  always  missed;  as  if  my  life  had  at  last 
discovered  its  native  element.  I  felt  as  happy  as  the 
fish  in  the  water,  the  bird  in  the  air."  He  now  read 
Pestalozzi's  books  and  began  to  make  experiments  on 
motor-expression  as  a  method  of  teaching,  and  he  soon 
met  with  much  success. 

At  Yverdun. — Having  made  up  his  mind  to  devote 
himself  to  teaching,  but  recognizing  how  little  he  knew 
and  how  poorly  prepared  he  was,  Froebel  gave  up  his 
place  in  Doctor  Griiner's  school  in  1808,  and  went  to 
Pestalozzi's  normal  school  at  Yverdun,  taking  with 
him  three  pupils,  who  should  be  under  his  own  care 
while  he  himself  would  study  under  Pestalozzi.     "Thus 


326  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

it  happened,"  he  says,  "that  I  was  there  both  as  teacher 
and  scholar,  educator  and  pupil.  In  order  to  be  fully 
and  perfectly  placed  in  the  midst  and  heart  of  Pesta- 
lozzi's  work,  I  wished  to  reside  with  my  pupils  in  the 
building  of  the  institution,  in  the  castle,  so  called. 
We  wished  to  share  everything  with  the  rest;  but  this 
wish  was  not  granted  us,  for  strange  selfishness  inter- 
fered. Yet  I  soon  came  to  dwell  as  near  the  institution 
as  possible,  so  that  we  shared  dinner,  afternoon  lunch 
and  supper,  the  instruction  adapted  to  us,  and  the 
whole  life  of  the  pupils.  I  for  myself  had  nothing  more 
serious  to  do  than  to  allow  my  pupils  to  take  a  full 
share  of  that  life,  strengthening  spirit  and  body.  With 
this  aim  we  shared  all  instruction,  and  it  was  a  special 
care  to  me  to  talk  with  Pestalozzi  on  every  subject 
from  its  first  point  of  connection,  to  learn  to  know  it 
from  its  foundation."  Froebel  remained  two  years, 
acquiring  much  valuable  training  in  music,  nature- 
study,  and  the  use  of  objects  in  teaching,  but  becoming 
interested  above  everything  else  in  the  study  of  self- 
expression  in  play  as  nature's  way  to  self-development. 

Further  Preparations. — In  order  to  discover  for  him- 
self how  "nature  and  man,  inasmuch  as  they  proceed 
from  the  same  source,  must  be  governed  by  the  same 
laws,"  and  thus  help  to  explain  each  other,  Froebel 
longed  for  deeper  knowledge  of  the  sciences,  and  accord- 
ingly spent  the  next  two  years  (1810-1812)  at  the 
universities  of  Gottingen  and  Berlin. 

In  1813,  as  the  student  of  history  will  recall,  Prussia 
in  company  with  other  countries  took  part  in  the  "war 
of  liberation"  against  Napoleon,  and  thus  it  came  to 
pass  that  Froebel,  though  not  a  Prussian  himself,  be- 
came a  soldier.     He  now  learned  what  perhaps  he  might 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  327 

have  missed  in  its  most  emphatic  values,  ''how  the 
individual  belongs  not  to  himself  but  to  the  whole 
body,  and  how  the  whole  body  supports  the  individual." 
This  lesson  saved  Froebel  from  the  extreme  naturalism 
of  Rousseau  as  portrayed  in  his  "Emile,"  and  taught 
him  the  importance  of  co-operation  as  a  natural  means 
in  self-development  through  self-activity. 

It  was  also  during  this  passage  in  the  making  of 
Froebel  that  he  fell  in  with  two  much  younger  men, 
Middendorf  and  Langenthal,  whom  he  attached  to 
himself  in  wonderful  intimacy,  and  whom  he  presently 
called  to  help  him  in  his  educational  experiments. 

Ai  Keilhau. — When  the  war  was  fully  over — for  he 
had  kept  his  holy  mission  unfalteringly  before  him — • 
Froebel  looked  about  for  an  opportunity  and  found  it. 
In  1816  he  undertook  the  education  of  five  nephews, 
with  whom  as  pupils  he  founded  a  school  at  Griesheim, 
but  moved  it  to  Keilhau  in  18 17,  and  called  upon  his 
friends  Middendorf  and  Langenthal  to  help  him.  It 
was  to  be  an  experiment  in  self-development  through 
socialized  self-activity.  In  the  play  life  to  which 
Froebel  reduced  much  of  the  school  process,  the  chil- 
dren built  dams  and  mills,  fortresses  and  castles,  and 
hunted  for  insects,  birds,  animals,  and  flowers  in  the 
woods.  Sometimes  this  free  self-activity  took  the 
form  of  work  in  the  garden  about  the  schoolhouse,  or 
useful  activities  in  the  building  itself.  In  1826,  in 
order  to  popularize  his  institute,  for  the  number  of 
pupils  was  never  very  large,  he  published  his  famous 
"Education  of  Man,"  an  explanatory  account  of  his 
educational  practice  at  Keilhau. 

In  spite  of  the  pedagogic  success  of  his  Keilhau  ex- 
periment, Froebel  could  not  make  it  pay,  and  had  to 


328  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

leave  the  school  in  charge  of  Barop  and  his  two  earlier 
friends,  while  he  himself  accepted  a  number  of  teach- 
ing positions  in  succession  in  Switzerland,  the  most 
important  of  these  being  at  Burgdorf,  where  Pesta- 
lozzi  had  worked  before  him,  and  where  in  addition 
to  his  own  labors  as  a  teacher  of  children  he  organized 
a  teachers'  class  to  study  his  theories.  He  was  warmly 
supported  in  this  attempt,  and  the  Swiss  teachers 
remain  true  to  him  to-day. 

The  Kindergarten:  Blankenburg. — While  at  Burg- 
dorf, a  friend  had  called  Froebel's  attention  to  the 
writings  of  Comenius.  The  "school  of  the  mother's 
knee"  as  portrayed  by  Comenius  made  a  deep  im- 
pression on  Froebel,  and  he  slowly  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  educational  reform  most  needed  was 
for  children  before  the  usual  school  age.  It  was  with 
this  idea  in  his  mind  that  he  returned  to  Keilhau  and 
in  1837  founded  a  "school  for  little  children"  in  the 
neighboring  town  of  Blankenburg.  In  1840,  after 
long  pondering,  he  finally  hit  upon  the  beautiful  and 
suitable  name  of  "kindergarten"  for  his  school. 

Although  the  school  had  to  be  closed  presently, 
Froebel,  faithful  to  the  cause  of  childhood,  devoted  the 
rest  of  his  life  to  writing  pamphlets  and  delivering  lec- 
tures on  his  kindergarten  ideals,  to  the  better  selection 
of  kindergarten  materials,  and  to  the  training  of  young 
women  for  the  work  of  teaching  in  kindergartens. 
Unfortunately,  the  Prussian  Government,  confusing 
his  teaching  with  the  revolutionary  doctrines  of  his 
nephew  Karl  Froebel,  prohibited  the  establishment  of 
kindergartens  in  185 1.  This  blow  probably  shortened 
his  life,  for  he  died  the  next  year.  The  order  was  not 
revoked  until  i860,  nor  has  the  Prussian  state  officially 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  329 

recognized  the  kindergarten  up  to  this  day,  although 
private  kindergartens  are  no  longer  prohibited.  Now 
that  the  world  knows  the  full  length  to  which  autoc- 
racy may  go  in  its  determination  to  crush  democracy, 
it  also  knows  why  Prussia  would  not  tolerate  such  exal- 
tation of  the  individual  as  Froebel's  ideals  contemplate. 
It  is  through  the  Baroness  Bertha  von  Billow,  as  much 
as  through  himself,  that  Froebel's  kindergarten  lives 
and  that  it  has  accomplished  so  much  for  education. 

Principles. — As  the  interpreter  of  his  illustrious  fore- 
runners, Froebel  made  several  very  distinct  contri- 
butions to  the  cause  of  education. 

Development  as  Aim. — Like  Rousseau,  with  whose 
naturalism  the  psychological  movement  began,  Froebel 
advocated  "education  according  to  nature,"  thus  as- 
suming that  education  must  have  for  its  primary  pur- 
pose the  natural  development  of  the  individual,  the 
evolution  of  inborn  capacities  and  powers;  but  his 
deep-seated  conviction  that  God  reveals  himself  to  the 
individual  through  nature,  and  that  the  outline  of  the 
course  of  human  development  in  accordance  with 
divine  purpose  must  be  kept  clearly  before  the  mind 
of  the  teacher,  lifts  Froebel  God-high  above  the  ex- 
tremes of  Rousseau's  naturalism,  and  ranges  him  with 
Richter,  Kant,  and  Herbart  as  the  champions  of  em- 
phasis on  the  religious  and  moral  side  of  human 
development. 

Method  of  Development. — Froebel,  like  Rousseau,  rec- 
ognized that  the  satisfaction  and  pleasure  which  activ- 
ity, or  motor-expression,  affords  the  child  is  nature's 
own  best  stimulus  to  self-activity,  and  that  accordingly 
the  activities  through  which  we  hope  to  develop,  or 
educate,  the  child  must  be  as  largely  self-determined 


330  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

as  possible.  The  play  of  children  is  evidently  nature's 
first  provision  for  their  education. 

Realizing  as  he  did  that  the  child  by  nature  acquires 
an  astonishing  amount  of  knowledge  through  effort 
put  forth  to  satisfy  his  desires,  Froebel  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  sense-perceptions  upon  which  Pesta- 
lozzi  based  all  instruction  acquire  full  eflSciency  only 
through  the  correlation  of  expressive  action  with  ac- 
quisitive action,  and  that  the  effort  to  express  knowl- 
edge should  consist  not  only  of  words  but  also  of  such 
actions  as  gestures,  songs,  and  material  constructions. 
In  other  words,  we  must  not  only  require  the  learner 
to  prove  by  doing,  and  to  put  into  use  acquired  knowl- 
edge, as  the  Herbartians  do  in  the  fifth  step  of  instruc- 
tion, but  also  perfect  the  learning  process  through  do- 
ing, and  so  much  so  that  the  learning  process  consists 
more  largely  of  doing  than  of  anything  else,  for  this  is 
nature's  own  best  way. 

Participation. — Froebel  rises  immeasurably  above 
Rousseau  in  the  realization  that  the  nature  of  the 
child  calls  for  co-operative  action  lather  than  for  isola- 
tion of  the  individual,  that  there  is  really  a  mechanism 
of  instincts  which  calls  for  such  social  participation, 
and  that  the  highest  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual 
development  are  definitely  dependent  upon  such  par- 
ticipation. In  this  conviction  Froebel  is  as  much  of  a 
psychologist  as  Aristotle  and  as  human  in  his  sympa- 
thies with  childhood  as  Pestalozzi,  his  great  pattern. 

Embodiment. — The  kindergarten  at  Blankenburg  was 
Froebel's  embodiment  of  his  principles  of  education. 
The  means  which  he  organized  to  carry  out  his  pur- 
poses are  "Mother  Play  and  Nursery  Songs,"  the 
"gifts,"  and  the  "occupations."     "The  [fifty]  songs 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  331 

describe  simple  nursery  games  like  hide-and-seek,  or 
the  imitation  of  some  trade  like  the  carpenter's,"  and 
are  accompanied  by  pictures  and  explanatory  notes. 
The  "gifts"  consist  of  materials  that  attract  attention 
and  the  desire  to  use  them,  namely,  the  sphere,  cube, 
cylinder,  sticks,  tablets,  etc.,  while  the  "occupations" 
consist  of  materials  that  are  capable  of  transformation 
in  use,  like  sand,  clay,  paper,  cardboard,  etc.  The 
plays  to  which  the  use  of  the  gifts  and  occupations 
lead  become  miniature  social  and  moral  exercises  as 
well  as  highly  effective  intellectual  operations.  The 
modern  organization  of  the  kindergarten  emphasizes 
the  occupations  above  the  gifts,  since  the  former 
afford  a  better  selection  of  materials  and  activities. 
In  the  actual  conduct  of  kindergarten  activities,  songs, 
gesture,  and  constructions  are  correlated  as  much  as 
possible. 

Froebel's  Influenced— It  is  really'  difficult  to  give 
proper  credit  to  reformers  such  as  Rousseau,  Pesta- 
lozzi,  Herbart,  and  Froebel  because  such  credit  belongs 
to  them  jointly. 

Play. — Froebel's  principles  of  education  as  embodied 
in  the  kindergarten,  supported  by  "the  new  psychology 
which  predicates  feeling  and  action  as  primary  ele- 
ments of  mind,  and  intellect  as  a  product  of  their  in- 
teraction," has  compelled  a  general  reorganization  of  ed- 
ucation not  only  in  primary  schools  but  also  in  secondary 
and  higher  institutions,  in  all  of  which  play  has  be- 
come an  integral  portion  of  the  curriculum,  and  the 
hope  of  social  and  moral  as  well  as  of  physical  reform. 

The  Hand  in  Education. — Rousseau  advocated  hand- 
work, and  wanted  everybody  to  learn  a  trade,  but  for 
social  and  economic  reasons.     Pestalozzi  endeavored 


332  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

to  heighten  the  efficiency  of  sense-perception  through 
industrial  occupation,  but  with  instruction  rather  than 
development  as  the  end  in  view.  Froebel,  differing 
from  both  in  purpose,  advocated  hand-work  for  its 
cultural  value,  or  for  the  increase  of  mental  power 
which  it  was  to  produce.  It  was  with  this  end  in  view 
that  he  had  proposed  to  establish  a  manual-training 
school  at  Helba,  Germany.  This  idea  of  correlating 
hand-work  with  head-work  as  practised  in  the  kinder- 
garten was  the  definite  beginning  of  the  numerous 
schemes  of  manual  training  that  have  become  integral 
in  the  educational  systems  of  Europe,  America,  and 
elsewhere  in  the  world. 

Kindergartens. — Through  Baroness  Bertha  von 
Billow  kindergarten  ideals  and  methods  have  largely 
modified  the  "infant  schools"  of  France  and  England, 
which,  up  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
were  only  day-nurseries  for  the  children  of  parents 
hard  pressed  by  economic  conditions.  Through  Doctor 
William  T.  Harris,  until  lately  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  who  gave  the  kindergarten  a 
place  in  the  St.  Louis  schools,  and  through  Miss  Susan 
Blow,  who  seconded  his  efforts,  and  established  a 
training-school  for  kindergartners  in  St.  Louis,  kinder- 
gartens have  become  a  part  of  the  educational  scheme 
in  the  United  States.  This  result  was  greatly  hastened 
and  enlarged  by  Miss  Elizabeth  Peabody,  of  Boston, 
Mass.,  who  opened  the  first  kindergarten  for  English- 
speaking  children  in  i860. 

General  Infiltration. — The  whole  scheme  of  modern 
education  has  become  infiltrated  with  Froebelianism. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  America.  Among  the  men 
to  whom  special  credit  is  due  for  these  results  is  Colonel 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  333 

Francis  W.  Parker  (1837-1902),  principal  of  the  Cook 
County  Normal  School,  Illinois,  who  introduced  the 
Pestalozzian  method  of  teaching  geography  and  the 
Herbartian  idea  of  concentrating  the  curriculum  about 
a  central  study,  in  this  case  geography,  and  who  in- 
sisted in  season  and  out  of  season  on  Froebelian  motor- 
expression  and  social  participation  as  the  best  means 
in  the  development  of  thinking  power  and  character. 
Undoubtedly  Doctor  John  Dewey's  "new  psychology" 
has  greatly  added  to  the  power  of  the  general  psychologi- 
cal movement  in  pedagogy. 

Estimate. — The  psychological  movement  beginning 
in  Rousseau's  extreme  naturalism  was  generally  fortu- 
nate in  its  interpreters,  for  through  them  the  pendulum 
was  swung  back  from  emotional  to  institutional  in- 
dividualism, and  although  the  stress  which  these  in- 
terpreters have  put  upon  method  has  often  hardened 
into  formalism  and  soft  pedagogy,  there  is  now  no  real 
conflict  between  the  claims  of  the  social  whole  and  the 
individual  on  the  one  side,  or  between  both  of  these 
and  the  higher  claims  of  God  on  the  other  side. 


REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  Lord's  "Beacon  Lights  of  History." 

3.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

4.  Quick's  "Educational  Reformers." 

5.  Graves'  "  Great  Educators  of  Three  Centuries." 

6.  Barnard's  "German  Teachers." 

7.  Krusi's  "Pestalozzi." 

8.  Pestalozzi's  "Leonard  and  Gertrude." 

9.  Barnard's  "Pestalozzi  and  Pestalozzianism." 

10.  Parker's  "History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education." 

11.  Williams'  "History  of  Modern  Education." 


334  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

12.  Kricge's  "Friedrich  Froebel." 

13.  Froebel's  "Education  of  Man." 

14.  De  Garmo's  "Herbart  and  the  Herbartians." 

15.  Lange's  "Apperception." 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  two  contending  ideas  came  into  sharp  collision 
through  Rousseau,  and  what  did  Pestalozzi,  Herbart,  and  Froe- 
bel contribute  to  the  new  movement? 

2.  What  were  the  educative  influences  which  help  to  accoimt 
for  Pcstalozzi's  philanthropinism  ? 

3.  Account  fully  for  his  presence  at  Neuhof,  Stanz,  Burgdorf, 
and  Yverdun,  and  examine  his  achievements  in  these  situations 
very  carefully. 

4.  State  fully  the  great  principles  of  Pestalozzianism,  and  bring 
each  one  to  the  test  of  psychology  and  sociology. 

5.  Account  for  Fellenberg  and  examine  his  Pestalozzian  ex- 
periment at  Hofwyl.     What  does  the  world  owe  Fellenberg? 

6.  Which  movements  inspired  by  Rousseau  and  inaugurated  by 
Pestalozzi  have  acquired  great  momentum  ?  Where  ?  Through 
whom?     With  what  results? 

7.  What  were  the  educative  opportunities  of  Herbart  before 
he  became  a  tutor  himself?  How  did  his  career  as  a  tutor  con- 
tribute to  his  future?  How  did  Pestalozzi  contribute  to  the 
same  result? 

8.  Account  for  his  presence  at  Konigsberg,  and  explain  his 
work  there. 

9.  Explain  the  twofold  ascent  which  Herbart  proposed,  and 
judge  the  fitness  of  this  scheme  as  means  to  end. 

10.  Account  for  the  laborious  investigations  carried  on  so 
many  years.  At  what  important  conclusions  regarding  the  con- 
struction of  a  curriculum  did  he  thus  arrive?  Why  was  Doctor 
Eckhoff  right  in  calling  Herbart's  "apperceptive"  correlation 
"educative  instruction"? 

11.  Explain  the  formal  steps  to  which  later  Herbartians  have 
tried  to  reduce  all  complete  instruction. 

12.  Explain  the  contributions  of  the  Herbartians  Ziller  and 
Rein  to  the  cause  of  pedagogy.     To  what  extent  has  their  at- 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  MOVEMENT  335 

tempt  to  reconcile  the  requirements  of  apperception  with  bi- 
ological recapitulation  succeeded  in  practice? 

13.  Place  Froebel  with  the  other  great  contributors  to  the 
psychological  movement. 

14.  For  which  of  his  views  do  his  home,  early  school-days,  life 
in  the  forest,  and  his  experience  as  a  soldier,  account  ?  Through 
whom  did  he  discover  himself  and  what  does  he  owe  to  Pes- 
talozzi?  What  holy  mission  had  he  proposed  to  himself  and 
what  higher  knowledge  did  he  seek? 

15.  Describe  the  activities  of  Froebel  and  his  associates  at 
Keilhau,  and  his  subsequent  trials.  Why  did  he  return  to 
Keilhau  in  1837,  and  what  does  the  world  owe  to  him  as  a 
consequence  ? 

16.  Account  psychologically  and  historically  for  the  attitude 
of  Prussia  toward  Froebel's  kindergarten. 

17.  What  did  Froebel  believe  to  be  the  ends  in  view  in  educa- 
tion, and  how  were  these  ends  to  be  attained?  Examine  his 
ideas  on  "motor-expression"  and  "social  participation"  in  the 
light  of  present  knowledge. 

18.  What  were  the  "gifts"  and  "occupations"  which  Froebel 
used  in  his  kindergarten,  and  to  what  extent  have  they  stood 
the  test  ? 

19.  Describe  the  place  "play"  has  come  to  have  through  Froe- 
bel's influence. 

20.  What,  according  to  Froebel,  is  the  function  of  the  hand 
in  education?  Compare  these  views  with  those  of  Rousseau, 
Pestalozzi,  and  later  thinkers. 

21.  Trace  the  spread  of  Froebelianism  into  the  twentieth 
century,  and  give  proper  credit  to  its  celebrated  interpreters. 

22.  To  what  extent  has  Froebelianism  justified  itself?  Con- 
sult the  last  chapter  for  help  in  your  decision. 


l_»BR  ARV 

STATE  NONMAl  SCHOOL 

MANUAL  ASTS   AND  HOWE  ECONOMIC 

SANTA  BASBABA,  CALIFORNIA 


"^^A^ 


CHAPTER  XVII 

PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION 

THE   SOCIALIZING   MOVEMENTS 

The  wars  through  which  the  English  Stuarts  and 
the  French  Bourbons  finally  lost  their  thrones,  and 
through  which  other  powers  contended  for  political 
supremacy,  as  in  the  rise  of  the  Hohenzollerns,  reduced 
large  portions  of  the  social  whole  to  helpless  conditions 
of  poverty,  hopelessness,  and  vice. 

Philanthropy. — Although  in  this  course  of  events 
the  church  suffered  much  herself  and  lost  much  of 
her  teaching  and  alleviating  power,  she  still  continued 
to  be  the  hope  of  the  hopeless.  The  principle  of  the 
fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man  con- 
tinued to  have  power  enough  to  produce  individuals 
and  associations  that  were  ready  to  make  themselves 
the  responsible  stewards  of  the  less  fortunate  classes. 
This  spirit  of  philanthropy  sometimes  manifested  it- 
self in  men  who  were  not  wholly  in  sympathy  with 
orthodox  Christianity,  as  in  the  case  of  Rousseau,  but 
is  seen  to  the  best  advantage  in  such  devoted  Chris- 
tians as  Pestalozzi.  The  general  outcome  in  the  last 
part  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  was  rescue  movements  of  large  pro- 
portions— noble  efforts  to  make  the  helpless  classes 
beneficiaries  of  education  and  of  all  the  good  things 
that   come   through   education.     Thus   arose   charity 

336 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    337 

schools  for  the  poor,  Sunday-schools  for  the  moral  up- 
lift of  the  ignorant,  infant  schools  for  children  who 
through  the  pitiless  industrial  conditions  would  other- 
wise have  become  a  burden  to  themselves  and  the 
social  whole,  schools  for  moral  delinquents  and  mental 
defectives,  and  by  and  by,  as  in  America,  schools  for 
dispossessed  Indians  and  emancipated  slaves. 

While  it  is  true  enough  that  the  philanthropists 
could  not  cope  successfully  with  all  the  actual  needs 
of  the  century  in  question,  their  experiments  in  time 
induced  the  state,  as  the  only  social  whole  powerful 
enough  to  achieve  success,  to  make  itself  the  respon- 
sible steward  of  all  classes. 

Patriotism. — The  century  of  European  revolutions, 
covering  more  than  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  and 
more  than  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth,  left  a  num- 
ber of  great  monarchs  securely  in  possession  of  their 
thrones,  while  the  rest  were  either  compelled  to  com- 
promise with  their  subjects  or  to  bow  to  defeat,  thus 
making  democracy  possible.  All  these  political  move- 
ments, powerfully  affecting  social  wholes,  called  for 
educational  systems  that  would  foster  patriotism  and 
produce  efficiency. 

In  some  cases,  conspicuously  in  Prussia,  the  Hohen- 
zollerns  succeeded  not  only  in  making  absolutism  toler- 
able but  even  acceptable.  This  was  accomplished 
primarily  through  the  creation  of  a  powerful  standing 
army,  making  territorial  conquest  and  defense  against 
encroachment  possible,  and  thus  producing  a  strong 
feeling  of  nationality;  but  these  far-sighted  and  am- 
bitious sovereigns  early  realized  that  absolutism  can- 
not be  made  permanently  acceptable  to  the  social 
whole  by  anything  less  than  the  general  uplift  of  the 


338  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

social  whole,  and  that  the  best  means  to  this  end  was 
free,  compulsory,  and  universal  education,  which, 
through  its  beneficence,  would  in  time  produce  personal 
attachment  to  the  rulers  and  thus  conserve  their  am- 
bitious sovereignty  through  genuine  patriotism. 

Efficiency. — The  creation  and  maintenance  of  mili- 
tarism, defensive  and  offensive,  in  European  nations, 
called  for  general  efficiency  as  well  as  for  patriotism. 
The  systems  of  education  which  would  serve  as  means 
to  the  ends  must  therefore  train  the  social  whole  not 
only  for  patriotic  citizenship,  whether  it  be  in  king- 
doms and  empires,  or  in  self-governing  republics  like 
France,  and  in  such  constitutional  monarchies  as  Eng- 
land and  Italy,  but  also  for  competitive  efficiencies 
that  would  make  national  existence  safe  and  prosperous 
in  times  of  peace  as  well  as  in  times  of  war. 

Such  competitive  efficiency  can  come  only  through 
systems  of  education  in  which  the  curriculum,  the 
teaching  forces,  and  all  pedagogical  equipment  are 
subsidized  to  the  ends  in  view.  To  support  the 
crowded  populations  of  European  countries  the  edu- 
cational curriculum  must  include  scientific  agriculture, 
forestry,  mining,  etc.  The  movement  of  the  rural 
population  to  the  cities  through  such  inventions  as 
the  steam-engine,  the  cotton-gin,  etc.,  calls  for  voca- 
tional education.  In  the  interest  of  national  wealth 
and  competitive  superiority  stress  must  be  laid  on  the 
training  of  engineering  experts,  industrial  experts,  and 
commercial  experts.  Continuation  schools  must  fol- 
low the  boys  and  girls  into  their  vocations.  In  mon- 
archies, military  and  professional  training  must  be 
jealously  guarded  as  the  prerogatives  of  the  ruling 
houses.     In  order  that  education  may  have  the  valu- 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    339 

able  quality  of  efSciency,  the  teaching  forces  must  be 
professionally  trained.  The  highly  complex  organiza- 
tion which  has  become  more  and  more  necessary  in 
the  adjustment  of  educational  means  to  educational 
ends  has  given  rise  to  a  number  of  strongly  centralized 
national  systems  of  education. 

GERMANY 

The  German  states,  gradually  grouping  themselves 
around  Prussia  as  the  political  nucleus,  have  all  be- 
come affiliated  with  her  in  educational  matters,  so 
that  we  should  begin  with  Prussia  in  order  that  through 
her  systems  as  a  type  we  may  obtain  a  definite  gen- 
eral view  of  the  German  system  as  a  whole. 

The  HohenzoUerns. — The  Hohenzollerns,  who  ac- 
cepted the  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  with 
its  philanthropic  interests,  saw  from  the  beginning,  so 
it  now  appears,  that  these  philanthropic  interests  would 
sooner  or  later  become  a  serious  menace  toHohenzol- 
iern  political  ambition,  and  that  therefore  the  social 
whole  must  be  weaned  from  control  by  the  church  to 
control  by  the  state,  and  that  this  must  be  accomplished 
through  education.  While,  therefore,  in  order  to  at- 
tach the  social  whole  to  themselves,  the  Hohenzollerns 
inaugurated  and  furthered  social-welfare  movements 
through  education,  they  contrived  to  make  each  new 
reform  a  stepping-stone  to  greater  political  power. 

Frederick  William  I. — The  first  efficiency  move  of 
this  sort  was  made  by  Frederick  Wilham  I  in  17 17. 
In  that  year  he  issued  a  decree  requiring  parents  to 
send  their  children  to  elementary  schools.  Nor  did 
he  stop  at  that,  but  even  devoted  state  funds  to  the 


340  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

establishment  of  rural  schools,  and  when  he  found  it 
difficult  to  secure  intelligent  teachers,  he  founded  the 
first  training-school  for  teachers.  It  was  located  at 
Stettin.  None  of  these  efforts  betrayed  any  open  op- 
position to  the  church  as  a  teaching  force. 

Frederick  the  Great. — His  son,  Frederick  the  Great 
(i  740-1 786),  was  an  enlightened  despot  who  saw  that 
the  more  he  could  do  for  the  general  uplift  of  his  peo- 
ple the  more  efficient  a  tool  they  would  be  in  his 
hands  in  the  achievement  of  his  ambitions.  He  there- 
fore made  many  economic  and  social  reforms  that 
looked  to  the  advancement  of  the  social  whole,  and 
gave  much  attention  to  educational  reforms.  He  im- 
proved the  secondary  schools,  granted  academic  free- 
dom in  universities,  and  established  an  academy  of 
science  in  Berlin,  and,  by  leaving  the  administration 
of  the  schools  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  he  accustomed 
them  to  submit  to  state  control  without  alienating 
them  from  his  cause.  His  great  contribution  to  the 
cause  of  elementary  education  was  the  general  school 
regulations  which  he  issued  in  1763.  In  this  code 
(i)  school  attendance  was  made  compulsory  from  the 
age  of  five  years  to  thirteen  for  those  who  could  pass 
the  state  tests,  and  fourteen  for  those  who  were  less 
fortunate.  (2)  No  one  was  allowed  to  teach  school 
without  being  examined  and  licensed  by  a  local  in- 
spector and  preacher.  (3)  And  the  schoolmaster  was 
required  to  give  part  of  his  Sunday  to  teach  young 
unmarried  people  who  were  beyond  the  school  age. 

Frederick  William  II. — It  was  the  cherished  hope  of 
Baron  von  Sedlitz,  the  educational  adviser  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  to  improve  the  administration  of  schools  by 
creating  a  central  board,  thus  disposing  of  the  local 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    341 

church  consistories  and  their  freedom  from  state  con- 
trol. The  new  board  was  to  consist  of  lay  members. 
Frederick  William  II  established  a  central  board  in 
1787,  but,  finding  it  either  inopportune  or  impossible 
to  defy  the  church  and  her  traditional  prestige,  he  re- 
fused to  go  the  whole  length  of  substituting  lay  ex- 
perts for  churchmen  in  the  membership  of  this  board, 
nor  did  he  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  the  central  board 
to  higher  education. 

In  the  meantime  the  scholars  and  jurists  whom 
Frederick  the  Great  had  appointed  to  codify  Prussian 
laws  completed  their  work.  This  was  in  1794.  "The 
twelfth  chapter  of  laws"  was  devoted  to  education. 
The  advocates  of  supreme  control  by  the  state  had 
trium-phed.  It  was  now  openly  asserted  that  "all 
schools  and  universities  are  state  institutions,  which 
may  be  founded  only  with  the  knowledge  and  consent 
of  the  state;  they  are  under  the  supervision  of  the 
state  and  at  all  times  subject  to  its  examination  and 
inspection."  The  code  also  provided  for  compulsory 
attendance  and  the  appointment  of  teachers  by  the 
state.  Religious  instruction  was  not  to  be  eliminated 
from  the  schools,  but,  with  this  one  concession  to  com- 
fort her  for  her  loss  of  power,  the  church  was  hence- 
forth to  surrender  all  administrative  function  to  the 
state.  The  social  whole,  moved  by  traditional  sym- 
pathy, and  tacitly  encouraged  by  the  clergy,  was  sure 
to  resent  the  new  order  of  things,  and  this  resentment 
was  not  mollified  by  the  corrupt  and  selfish  adminis- 
tration to  which  the  people  were  subjected  by  the  min- 
ions of  the  king. 

Rude  Awakening. — In  1806,  as  we  should  recall  at 
this  point,  Napoleon  humbled  Prussia  at  Jena.     Ruler 


342  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  people  were  suddenly  face  to  face  with  stern  reali- 
ties. Reforms  of  every  sort  were  instituted.  The 
great  men  with  whom  Frederick  William  II  now  sur- 
rounded himself  saw  that  what  Prussia  needed  most  was 
an  educational  system  that  would  produce  intelligent 
patriotism.  This  was  the  psychological  moment.  The 
social  whole,  together  with  the  church,  would  now  be 
ready  enough  to  submit  gracefully  to  any  system  of 
centralization  in  school  administration.  The  central 
administration  was  created  within  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  and  the  illustrious  Wilhelm  von  Hum- 
boldt was  placed  in  charge.  He  inaugurated  reforms 
in  elementary,  secondary,  and  higher  education  that 
went  far  toward  the  eventual  completion  of  a  state 
system  that  would  serve  the  ambition  of  the  Hohen- 
zollerns.  In  1809  the  University  of  Berlin  was  founded, 
and,  through  the  eminent  scholars  invited  as  teachers, 
it  soon  became,  what  it  has  long  continued  to  be,  a 
great  research  university.  In  181 2  the  classical  high 
schools,  which  fell  in  line  with  the  curriculum  pre- 
scribed by  the  state,  including  emphasis  on  Greek  and 
mathematics,  thus  preparing  for  admission  to  the  uni- 
versities, took  their  definite  place  in  the  educational 
system  specially  planned  for  the  training  of  civil-ser- 
vice experts,  and  were  called  "gymnasiums." 

In  order  to  prepare  efficient  teachers  for  the  g\'m- 
nasiums,  pedagogical  seminaries  were  established  in 
all  the  Prussian  universities.  In  the  same  way  Pesta- 
lozzian  teachers,  trained  in  Pestalozzian  normal  schools, 
became  the  requirement  in  elementary  schools. 

In  181 7  the  Bureau  of  Education  founded  ten  years 
before  became  a  separate  ministry,  and  in  1825  pro- 
vincial school  boards  responsible  to  the  ministry  were 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    343 

organized,  and  it  was  hoped  that  this  provision  would 
gradually  eliminate  all  ecclesiastical  domination  over 
education.  From^  that  time  on,  up  to  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War,  it  was  the  policy  of  the  government  to 
eliminate  all  such  individual  initiative  in  education  as 
might  result  from  Pestalozzianism,  and  the  rights  of 
the  social  whole  to  such  practical  studies  as  geography, 
history,  and  science  were  largely  ignored.  The  climax 
to  this  despotism  in  education  came  in  1848  when,  in 
the  reign  of  Frederick  William  IV,  after  the  demand 
of  the  people  for  a  more  liberal  constitution,  kinder- 
gartens were  prohibited  as  revolutionary  institutions 
and  all  liberalism  in  university  professors  was  looked 
upon  with  suspicion. 

The  Later  Eohenzollerns. — After  the  revolution  of 
1848  the  educational  reforms  of  Prussia,  in  response 
to  the  increasing  commercial  and  political  rivalries 
between  the  Hohenzollerns  and  the  Hapsburgers,  be- 
came intensely  practical  and  nationalistic.  In  order 
to  make  the  Realschulen  as  well  as  the  gymnasiums 
feeders  for  the  scientific  and  technical  courses  offered 
in  the  universities,  Latin  was  incorporated  into  the 
gymnasiums  in  1859  and  the  course  lengthened  to 
nine  years,  thus  making  these  gymnasiums  Latin- 
scientific  schools  of  a  high  order.  After  the  triumph  of 
Prussia  over  Austria  in  1866  and  over  France  in  1871, 
and  the  formation  of  the  German  Empire  with  Prussia 
as  the  dominating  centre,  the  gymnasiums  still  furthered 
the  interests  of  a  nationaHsm  that  amounted  prac- 
tically to  idolatry.  The  late  Emperor  William  became 
the  voice  of  this  "kultur"  ideal.  Said  he  in  1890  to 
the  Berlin  School  Conference:  ''First  of  all,  a  national 
basis  is  wanting  in  the  gymnasiums.     Their  founda- 


344  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

tion  must  be  German.  It  is  our  duty  to  educate  men 
to  become  young  Germans  and  not  young  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Hence  we  must  make  German  the  basis 
around  which  everything  revolves."  Nationalism  now 
began  to  mean  pan- Germanism.  The  German  people, 
including  the  clergy,  must  henceforth  make  efficiency 
through  education  by  the  state  for  the  state  their 
supreme  concern. 

Elementary  Schools. — The  German  elementary  schools 
are  intended  for  the  children  of  the  masses  who  are 
destined  for  mechanical  pursuits,  and  are  therefore 
properly  called  ''Volksschulen"  (schools  for  the  peo- 
ple). They  are  free  to  all,  both  boys  and  girls,  and 
compulsory  from  the  age  of  six  to  fourteen.  The  cur- 
riculum includes  reading,  writing,  singing,  drawing, 
geography,  history,  and  religious  instruction.  In 
Protestant  Germany  the  pupil  is  confirmed  by  the 
church  at  the  end  of  the  eight-year  course.  If  the 
child  is  to  be  transferred  from  the  Volksschule  to  any 
one  of  the  three  kinds  of  high  schools,  it  must  be  done 
at  the  age  of  nine.  The  teachers  of  the  Volksschulen 
are  professionally  trained,  and  must  hold  state  certifi- 
cates, which  entitle  the  holder  to  permanent  positions. 
About  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  teachers  are  women. 

Secondary  Schools. — There  are  three  kinds  of  high 
schools  in  Germany,  namely,  the  gymnasium,  the  real- 
gymnasium,  and  the  realschule.  They  are  all  alike 
in  organization,  administration,  methods,  and  discipline, 
but  differ  from  each  other  in  curriculum. 

The  gymnasium  is  the  classical  high  school  of  Ger- 
many, making  Latin  and  Greek  the  fundamental 
studies  and  formal  discipline  the  aim.  It  is  specially 
intended  for  the  sons  of  the  German  aristocracy  and 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION     345 

professional  classes,  and  graduation  gives  these  priv- 
ileged classes  high  prestige.  Besides  Latin  and  Greek, 
together  with  the  usual  correlatives,  the  curriculum 
includes  French  and  English,  mathematics,  science, 
and  religion.  The  pupil  is  entered  at  the  age  of  nine, 
either  from  the  Volksschule — which  is  exceptional — or 
from  a  "  Vorschule"  (preparatory  school),  and  remains 
for  nine  years,  when  he  is  ready  for  the  university. 
The  teachers  are  specially  prepared  by  university 
"Seminars"  (university  normal  schools),  and  hold 
their  positions  as  government  officials. 

The  real-gymnasium  is  the  Latin-scientific  high 
school  of  Germany.  It  has  Latin  in  every  year,  but 
substitutes  French  and  English  for  Greek,  and  gives 
much  attention  to  science  and  mathematics.  Gradua- 
tion from  the  real-gymnasium  prepares  the  student  to 
enter  the  scientific  and  technical  courses  in  the  Ger- 
man universities.  The  social  prestige  which  gradua- 
tion from  the  real-gymnasium  guarantees  is  not  equal 
to  that  of  the  gymnasium. 

The  realschule  is  a  six-year  high  school  from  which 
Latin  and  Greek  are  both  omitted.  French,  however, 
is  taken  up  from  the  beginning.  In  other  respects  the 
realschule  is  very  much  like  the  real-gymnasium  in 
its  curriculum.  Graduation  does  not  lead  to  the  uni- 
versity but  to  practical  vocations,  and  shortens  com- 
pulsory military  service  from  two  to  one  year. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  since  1878  to 
overcome  the  difficulty  of  transfer  from  one  kind  of 
high  school  to  another.  These  attempts  have  pro- 
duced "reformed"  high  schools  that  seem  to  serve  the 
purpose,  and  they  are  growing  in  number. 

Since  1908  the  Prussian  Government  has  organized 


346  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

secondary  schools  giving  girls  practically  the  same 
opportunities  as  boys.  These  opportunities  include 
normal  schools,  from  which  they  usually  graduate  at 
twenty,  and  are  then  permitted  to  teach  not  only  in 
the  Volksschulen  but  also  in  the  lower  classes  of  secon- 
dary schools. 

Higher  Education. — Germany,  owing  to  competition 
between  states,  has  many  universities.  They  have 
now  all  been  acquired  by  the  state  or  come  into  exist- 
ence by  state  permission.  They  charge  fees,  but  are 
supported  chiefly  by  the  state,  and  under  the  direct 
control  of  the  minister  of  education.  This  official 
appoints  the  professors,  but  takes  counsel  with  the 
faculty.  Representatives  from  the  different  faculties 
annually  elect  a  rector  as  head  of  the  internal  admin- 
istration but  he  must  be  confirmed  by  the  minister  of 
instruction.  The  traditional  division  of  the  teaching 
forces  into  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  theology,  and 
philosophy  is  still  honored.  Most  of  the  new  sub- 
jects under  the  head  of  science,  sociology,  and  litera- 
ture are  placed  under  the  faculty  of  philosophy.  The 
German  universities  permit  elective  courses  and  aca- 
demic freedom  except  in  theology.  Women  are  also 
admitted  since  1908.  Technical  high  schools  of  uni- 
versity rank  have  lately  sprung  up,  and  devote  them- 
selves especially  to  education  in  agriculture,  forestry, 
mining,  engineering,  and  commerce. 

Estimate. — The  Hohenzollerns  of  Prussia  have  suc- 
ceeded in  organizing  a  state  system  of  education  in 
which  the  means  are  selected  with  pitiless  accuracy 
for  the  one  end  in  view,  namely,  the  ambitious  aggran- 
dizement of  a  ruling  house.  In  order  to  succeed  in  this 
ambition  it  was  necessary  to  subordinate  the  claims  of 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION     347 

God  and  the  rights  of  man  to  a  system  of  might.  The 
Hohenzollern  frightfulness  with  which  the  civilized 
world  has  become  so  familiar  in  these  last  years  shows 
that  a  system  of  education  which  does  not  make  for 
righteousness  and  justice,  for  human  liberty  and  hu- 
manity, is  a  curse  in  spite  of  the  pathetic  obedience  to 
which  blind  patriotism  may  follow  the  god  of  military 
efficiency. 

FRANCE 

Up  to  1789,  when  the  revolution  through  which 
Louis  XVI  lost  his  throne  began,  the  dominant  pur- 
pose in  French  education  was  religious,  and  the  gen- 
eral administration  of  schools  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
teaching  congregations,  the  Christian  Brothers  having 
become  more  than  the  successful  competitors  of  the 
Jesuits  and  other  orders — and  all  this  in  spite  of  the 
powerful  influence  of  rationalism  as  propounded  by 
the  cyclopsedists  and  of  naturalism  as  championed  by 
Rousseau. 

Infant  Schools. — That  the  educational  activities  of 
the  church  were  prompted  not  only  by  the  narrowing 
interests  of  denominationalism  but  also  by  the  broad- 
ening interests  of  philanthropy  appears  in  such  at- 
tempts as  those  of  Pastor  Oberlin.  Jean  Frederic 
Oberlin  was  a  young  Lutheran  pastor  whose  charge  in 
eastern  France  had  been  ravaged  by  war.  Oberlin 
conceived  the  idea  of  giving  some  training  to  the  very 
young  children  of  the  villages  belonging  to  his  charge. 
Thus  arose  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  so-called  "infant  schools"  of  France.  They  were 
day-nurseries  into  which  physical  exercises,  singing, 
drawing,  and  other  kindergarten  exercises  were  woven. 


348  HISTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

In  1801  the  system  was  brought  to  Paris,  in  1833  the 
infant  schools  became  a  part  of  the  national  system  of 
schools,  but  since  1881  they  have  been  known  as  "ma- 
ternal schools."  Although  in  the  French  system  they 
are  the  substitute  for  the  kindergarten,  the  kinder- 
garten aim  of  development  is  subordinate  to  the  Pesta- 
lozzian  aim  of  imparting  knowledge. 

The  National  Convention. — The  great  leaders  of  the 
"national  convention"  felt  that  the  perpetuity  of  the 
republic  which  they  had  called  into  being  in  1792 
could  be  assured  only  by  the  establishment  of  a  na- 
tional and  lay  system  of  education,  and,  moved  by  this 
conviction,  they  gave  much  attention  to  reports  and 
bills  relating  to  the  matter.  The  outcome  was  an 
order  to  establish  elementary  schools  throughout 
France,  and  to  make  attendance  compulsory;  but  the 
Reign  of  Terror  and  the  Wars  of  the  Directory  fol- 
lowed, so  that,  apart  from  the  establishment  of  the 
normal  school  and  the  polytechnic  school  at  Paris 
in  1793,  almost  nothing  came  of  the  proposed  school 
system. 

Napoleon. — When,  as  First  Consul  (1800-1804), 
Napoleon  began  the  great  work  of  reconstructing  and 
reforming  France,  and  thus  to  pave  his  way  for  empire, 
he  saw  with  marvellous  keenness  that  in  order  to  secure 
and  complete  the  social  results  of  the  revolution,  edu- 
cation was  the  means  to  the  end,  and  that  in  order  to 
heal  the  breach  which  the  national  convention  had 
made  between  the  church  and  the  state,  the  clergy 
must  be  recognized  in  all  his  restorations  and  reforms. 
Accordingly,  in  connection  with  the  codification  of 
laws  which  he  intrusted  to  famous  jurists,  he  planned 
a  school  system  worthy  of  his  great  mind. 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    349 

After  abolishing  the  autonomy  of  the  universities, 
most  of  which  had  become  moribund,  and  after  re- 
ducing all  of  them  except  Paris  to  mere  groups  of 
faculties  whose  work  it  should  be  to  grant  degrees, 
he  united  all  secondary  and  higher  institutions  into 
one  corporate  body  to  be  controlled  by  the  state,  and 
called  it  "The  University  of  Paris."  Inasmuch  as 
the  spokes  of  this  corporate  body  were  to  radiate  into 
every  part  of  France,  he  divided  the  country  into 
twenty-seven  administrative  "academies,"  or  sections, 
committing  the  administration  of  the  educational  af- 
fairs of  each  academy  to  a  rector  and  an  academic 
council,  a  plan  which  remained  in  force  until  1875. 
The  church,  however,  as  already  intimated,  was  per- 
mitted to  assume  control  of  elementary  education 
and  special  favor  was  shown  to  the  Christian  Brothers, 
whose  schools  had  been  suppressed  in  1792. 

The  Restored  Boiu-bons. — Louis  XVIII  (18 14-1824) 
and  Charles  X  (1824-1830),  the  restored  Bourbons, 
beheving  that  it  served  their  interests  as  despots  to 
conciliate  the  church  as  much  as  possible,  continued  the 
policy  of  permitting  the  teaching  congregations  to 
assume  control  of  elementary  education,  and  Louis 
XVIII  promptly  put  even  the  control  of  secondary 
and  higher  education  into  the  hands  of  a  priest,  Frey- 
sinous  by  name,  who  was  known  to  be  opposed  to 
state  control  of  education. 

Louis  Philippe. — The  July  revolution  of  1830  gave 
France  a  "citizen  king,"  Louis  Philippe  (1830-1848), 
through  whom  the  social  whole  of  France  began  to 
come  to  its  own  not  only  politically  but  also  in  the 
vital  matter  of  elementary  education.  His  celebrated 
minister  of  public  instruction,  Guizot,  promptly  began 


350  HISTORY  Ot"  EDUCATION 

to  agitate  the  question  of  popular  education,  and  it 
was  through  him  that  the  foundation  of  the  present 
educational  system  of  France  was  firmly  laid  in  the 
law  of  1833,  the  passage  of  which  he  secured.  This 
law  established  two  grades  of  elementary  schools,  a 
primary  school  for  every  commune,  or  district,  and  a 
higher  primary  school  for  every  commune  of  six  thou- 
sand inhabitants.  The  state  was  to  bear  the  financial 
burden  of  these  schools  completely,  except  that  a  small 
fee  was  required  on  the  part  of  pupils  who  could  aflford 
it.  The  appointment  of  teachers  was  vested  in  the 
state,  and,  for  the  sufficient  supply  of  qualified  teach- 
ers, about  thirty  department  normal  schools,  not  co- 
educational, were  created.  The  church  had  thus  lost 
control  of  popular  education,  but,  to  compensate  the 
social  whole  for  this  loss,  pro\'ision  was  made  for  free- 
dom of  religious  instruction.  The  plan  for  higher 
primary  schools  never  came  to  full  fruition,  but  much 
progress  was  made  in  Louis  Philippe's  reign  in  the 
establishment  and  pedagogical  conduct  of  the  primary 
schools.  Guizot  was  a  veritable  inspiration  to  the 
teacher.  He  addressed  to  them  the  beautiful  words: 
"I  know  full  well  that  the  law  will  never  succeed  in 
rendering  the  simple  profession  of  district  teacher  as 
attractive  as  it  is  useful.  Society  cannot  make  a 
sufficient  return  to  him  who  is  devoted  to  this  work. 
...  It  is  his  glory  to  pretend  to  nothing  but  his  ob- 
scure and  laborious  condition;  to  exhaust  his  strength 
in  sacrifice  scarcely  noticed  by  those  who  profit  by 
them;  in  a  word,  to  labor  for  men,  and  expect  his 
reward  from  God  alone." 

Louis  Napoleon. — Under  the  Second  Republic  (1848- 
1852)  the  school  laws  of  France  were  extensively  re- 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    351 

vised  in  1850,  but  when  this  Second  Republic  gave 
way  to  the  Second  Empire  (1852-1870),  the  old  hope 
of  healing  the  breach  between  the  church  and  the 
state  resulted  in  a  large  restoration  of  denominational 
primary  schools  in  preference  to  state-controlled 
primary  schools. 

Third  Republic. — When  in  1871  France  for  the  third 
time  became  a  republic,  the  great  leaders,  with  Gam- 
betta  at  the  head,  determined  to  establish  universal 
education,  not  simply  because  it  was  better  for  aU 
classes  of  the  social  whole  and  the  individuals  who 
constitute  the  social  whole,  but  especially  also  because 
it  was  essential  to  the  perpetuity  of  the  republic. 
And,  inasmuch  as  only  the  state,  that  is  the  organized 
representative  of  the  social  whole,  could  be  intrusted 
with  so  vast  a  task,  education  must  be  secularized  in 
the  administration  of  all  its  departments.  The  cen- 
tral administration  was  accordingly  intrusted  to  a 
minister  of  public  instruction,  who  should  be  as- 
sisted by  special  directors  of  primary,  secondary,  and 
higher  education.  The  academies  into  which  France 
was  divided  are  each  supervised  by  a  rector  supported 
by  an  academy  council  in  charge  of  the  three  fields  of 
education.  The  teachers,  however,  are  appointed  by 
a  so-called  "prefect,"  a  political  appointee.  To  guar- 
antee the  faithful  performance  of  all  functions,  the 
republic  maintains  a  complete  corps  of  state,  academy, 
and  district  inspectors,  assisted  by  local  school  com- 
mittees. In  short,  the  republic  has  made  itself  re- 
sponsible for  practically  everything  in  the  administra- 
tion of  French  education — appoints  the  teachers,  pro- 
vides a  pension  system  for  teachers,  controls  the  cur- 
riculum and  methods  of  education,  and,  when  private 


352  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

instruction  is  permitted,  safeguards  the  public  interests 
by  state  supervision.  This  ambitious  system  was  put 
into  pretty  complete  operation  between  187 1  and  188 1, 
when  millions  of  francs  were  spent  in  the  erection  of 
school  buildings  and  for  equipment,  provision  being 
made  among  other  things  for  manual  training  and 
technical  education  as  public  necessities.  In  1881 
every  commune  had  a  primary  school;  in  1882  atten- 
dance was  made  compulsory  between  the  ages  of  six 
and  thirteen.  Every  department  (county)  was  re- 
quired to  provide  a  normal  school  for  teachers  of  both 
sexes.  After  1886  clergymen  were  no  longer  allowed 
to  teach  in  the  public  schools.  In  190 1  a  bill  was  passed 
requiring  all  denominational  secondary  schools  to 
catalogue  their  purposes  and  activities,  and  thus  to 
put  themselves  under  state  control.  This  "Law  of 
Associations,"  aimed  especially  at  the  religious  orders, 
aroused  much  opposition,  and  led  to  the  closing  of  all 
such  schools  in  1902  and  1904.  There  is,  therefore, 
now  a  complete  separation  of  church  and  state  in 
French  education. 

Elementary  Schools. — Since  1833,  through  Guizot, 
the  primary  education  of  the  French  child  may  begin 
at  the  age  of  three  in  the  maternal  or  mother's  school, 
or  French  kindergarten.  From  six  to  thirteen  the 
children  of  both  sexes  are  required  to  attend  a  primary 
school,  in  which  reading,  writing,  drawing,  language, 
nature,  geography,  history,  civics,  morals,  singing, 
physical  culture  are  taught.  A  higher  primary  course 
of  three  years,  of  a  more  practical  and  vocational  na- 
ture, is  provided  for  children  who  can  remain  in  school 
longer  than  the  prescribed  time.  Agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial continuation  schools  are  also  to  be  found  in 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    353 

various  communes,  supported  by  the  communes  under 
state  supervision.  Coeducation  is  not  permissible  in 
the  French  elementary  schools,  except  where  it  can- 
not well  be  avoided. 

Secondary  Education. — There  are  two  kinds  of  high 
schools  in  France,  namely,  the  lycees,  or  national 
high  schools,  and  the  communal  colleges. 

The  lycees  are  supported  in  part  by  fees,  but  chiefly 
by  the  state.  The  pupil  enters  at  the  age  of  ten, 
usually  by  transfer  from  the  primary  school,  and  may 
elect  at  once  whether  he  will  spend  the  first  four  years 
on  the  classics,  or  on  science  together  with  mathe- 
matics and  the  modern  languages.  At  the  end  of  the 
''cycle"  of  four  years  he  is  permitted  to  change  his 
course  for  the  next  two  years,  making  up  any  deficien- 
cies which  the  change  may  require.  Regardless  of  the 
course  pursued  up  to  that  point,  the  French  boy  is 
permitted  to  devote  his  seventh  year  specially  either 
to  a  philosophic  course,  including  literature  and  the 
social  humanities,  or  to  a  scientific  course,  with  stress 
upon  mathematics,  either  course  leading  to  a  "bach- 
elor's degree." 

The  communal  colleges,  which  are  local  schools  sup- 
ported partly  by  fees,  but  chiefly  by  the  commune, 
and  with  some  help  from  the  state,  offer  courses  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  the  lycees,  but  do  not  have  the  same 
social  prestige,  and  the  professors  are  not  subject  to 
the  same  high  requirements  for  appointment. 

Up  to  1880,  when  the  law  created  lycees  and  com- 
munal colleges,  French  girls  who  wished  to  secure  a 
secondary  education  were  usually  obliged  to  obtain  it 
in  convents  and  private  schools,  but  the  secondary 
schools  then  created  for  girls  have  grown  steadily  in 


354  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

number  and  popularity.  These  lyc6es  for  girls  offer 
only  a  five-year  course,  exclude  the  classics  from  the 
curriculum,  and  put  great  stress  on  domestic  economy, 
drawing,  music,  and  morals,  together  with  courses  in 
mathematics  and  science.  As  a  rule,  only  women  are 
allowed  to  teach  in  the  lycees  for  girls,  and  these  must 
be  graduates  of  higher  normal  schools  especially  estab- 
lished for  the  purpose,  as  in  the  case  of  teachers  for  the 
lycees  for  boys. 

Higher  Education. — The  subordinate  position  to 
which  the  Napoleonic  reorganization  of  university 
faculties  had  reduced  these  institutions  of  higher  edu- 
cation was  not  seriously  corrected  during  the  nine- 
teenth century.  In  the  year  1885,  however,  a  law  was 
passed  to  organize  a  governing  council,  to  co-ordinate 
the  faculties,  and  to  hold  property  as  corporate  bodies. 
In  1896  the  separate  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  science, 
and  letters  were  reorganized  into  full  universities,  that 
is,  universities  each  having  the  above  four  faculties, 
supported  and  controlled  by  the  state.  Such  complete 
universities  were  planned  for  each  of  the  sixteen 
academies  except  one.  Eight  of  them  have  now  been 
fully  organized.  The  minister  of  instruction  appoints 
the  professors,  who  are  nominated  by  the  joint  action 
of  the  faculties,  and  receive  their  salary  from  the  state. 
The  internal  government  of  a  French  university  is 
vested  in  a  council  consisting  of  faculty  deans  and 
headed  by  a  rector.  All  French  universities  are  open 
to  women  as  well  as  men,  and  they  admit  students 
from  other  countries.  Numerous  professional  and 
technical  institutions  of  a  high  order  complete  the 
system  of  French  higher  education. 

Estimate. — The  striking  feature  of  the  French  sys- 
tem of  education  is  the  uncompromising,  almost  pitiless, 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    355 

secularization  of  the  system,  the  logical  result  of  the 
long  struggle  for  supremacy  of  the  church  over  the 
state  ending  in  favor  of  the  state.  It  is  much  to  be 
doubted  whether  the  final  result  to  the  French  social 
whole  and  the  highest  interests  of  humanity  will  jus- 
tify the  divorce  of  religion  from  civic  and  moral  instruc- 
tion, and  the  time  may  come,  perhaps  as  a  result  of 
the  late  tragical  conflict  with  the  brute  force  of  Prus- 
sianism,  when  France  will  give  religion  its  proper  place 
in  her  school  curriculum  and  her  teaching  force,  and 
that,  too,  without  bringing  back  the  evils  of  any  denomi- 
national bitterness.  In  all  other  respects  the  liberality, 
humanity,  and  wisdom  of  the  French  system  make 
France  akin  in  spirit  and  purpose  with  the  United 
States,  as  she  is  in  history  of  human  rights. 

ENGLAND 

The  traditional  conviction  that  education  should 
really  be  a  function  of  the  church  rather  than  of  the 
state,  and  the  additional  conviction  of  upper-class 
English  people  that  the  lower  class  should  serve  rather 
than  think,  prevailed  longer  in  England  than  else- 
where. During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, indeed,  the  Established  Church  limited  her  edu- 
cational activities  almost  wholly  to  secondary  and 
higher  education,  thus  pandering  almost  slavishly  to 
the  conservatism  of  the  English  aristocracy.  We  should 
therefore  not  be  surprised  to  find  that  the  English 
Government  assumed  no  ofiicial  responsibility  for  the 
education  of  the  submerged  social  and  industrial 
classes  much  before  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. In  the  meantime,  however,  as  early  as  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century  and  all  through  the 


356  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

century,  the  abject  helplessness  of  the  poor  and  igno- 
rant produced  philanthropists  and  philanthropic  or- 
ganizations that  believed  what  the  educational  re- 
formers of  other  countries  advocated,  namely,  that  all 
classes  of  the  social  whole  should  become  the  bene- 
ficiaries of  education  not  only  because  it  is  better  for 
each  class  but  also  because  it  is  best  for  the  social 
whole,  and  who  therefore  organized  movements,  phil- 
anthropic and  experimental,  through  which  in  time  the 
state  as  the  only  efficient  and  representative  organism 
of  the  social  whole  was  compelled  to  pay  attention.  It 
was  thus  that  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  English 
Government,  Hke  Germany,  France,  and  the  United 
States,  gradually  and  finally  assumed  the  responsibiHty 
of  universal,  free,  and  compulsory  education.  Among 
these  movements,  as  stated  before,  were  the  charity 
schools,  the  Sunday-schools,  the  monitorial  schools, 
and  the  infant  schools. 

Charity  Schools. — Some  charity  schools  were  estab- 
lished as  early  as  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century; 
but,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a 
group  of  philanthropists,  moved  by  compassion  and  a 
sense  of  moral  responsibility,  largely  inspired  by  the 
Reverend  Doctor  Thomas  Bray,  organized  a  ''Society 
for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,"  whose  object  it 
should  be  to  found  schools  through  which  poor  children 
might  be  made  "loyal  church  members,  fit  for  work  in 
that  station  of  life  in  which  it  hath  pleased  their 
Heavenly  Father  to  place  them."  In  other  words, 
instruction  in  religion  and  morals,  together  with  read- 
ing, writing,  and  arithmetic  of  an  elementary  nature, 
was  to  be  supplemented  by  training  which  would  fit 
boys   for   apprenticeships  in  the  trades  and  girls  for 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    357 

domestic  service.  In  practice,  the  children  received 
not  only  instruction  and  books  but  also  in  many  cases 
food  and  clothing. 

The  success  of  the  society  was  phenomenal.  In 
spite  of  opposition  from  the  upper  classes,  who  feared 
that  such  education  would  spoil  the  lower  classes,  it 
was  not  difficult,  as  a  rule,  to  enhst  local  help  in  the 
establishment,  support,  and  management  of  the  schools, 
for  the  society  on  its  part  took  pains  to  safeguard  the 
religious,  moral,  and  pedagogical  fitness  of  the  teachers, 
and  guaranteed  stipends  for  its  treasury  in  case  of 
great  need.  In  half  a  century  the  number  of  the  char- 
ity schools  in  England  and  Wales  had  grown  to  more 
than  two  thousand,  attended  by  more  than  fifty  thou- 
sand children.  Although  the  initial  impulse  gradually 
lost  its  force,  the  charity  movement  continued  all 
through  the  eighteenth  century,  until  it  was  absorbed 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  "National 
Society."  Through  an  offshoot  from  the  parent  so- 
ciety known  as  the  "Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,"  founded  by  Doctor  Bray 
three  years  after  the  parent  society,  the  church  school 
movement  was  carried  into  the  American  colonies, 
where,  as  we  shall  see,  it  became  a  most  important 
forerunner  of  our  free  schools. 

British  Sunday-Schools. — In  1780  Robert  Raikes,  a 
manufacturer  of  Gloucester,  England,  believing  that 
the  squalor  and  vice  of  the  city  were  largely  due  to  the 
ignorance  of  the  poor,  opened  a  school  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  both  adults  and  children  in  religion  and  the 
rudiments  on  Sundays.  He  paid  his  teachers  a  shilling 
a  Sunday  to  teach  the  children  to  read  in  the  Bible, 
spell,  and  write,  and  soon  had  a  number  of  such  schools 


358  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

in  successful  operation.  In  spite  of  opposition  from 
the  upper  classes  against  this  form  of  charity  schools, 
Robert  Raikes  had  warm  supporters  among  the  no- 
bility and  such  reformers  as  John  Wesley,  and  it  was 
not  long  before  the  movement  spread  to  London,  and 
then  all  through  the  British  Isles,  and  in  1786  to  the 
American  colonies.  This  rapid  extension  of  the  move- 
ment was  due  largely  to  the  formation  of  a  "Sunday- 
School  Society"  founded  in  1785,  and  to  its  activity 
in  distributing  Bibles,  testaments,  and  spellers. 
Within  ten  years  one  thousand  Sunday-schools  con- 
tained over  sixty-five  thousand  pupils. 

The  Sunday-schools  gradually  abandoned  secular 
instruction  and  the  practice  of  paid  teachers,  and  be- 
came purely  religious  institutions.  Raikes  and  other 
promoters  of  the  movement  realized  almost  from  the 
beginning  that  Sunday-schools  in  their  attempts  at 
secular  instruction  were  only  makeshifts.  Neverthe- 
less, like  other  philanthropic  experiments,  they  really 
helped  to  pave  the  way  for  the  larger  measures  of  uni- 
versal education  not  only  in  Great  Britain  but  also 
In  America. 

The  Monitorial  System  of  Schools. — At  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century  a  system  of  mutual  instruction, 
long  known  among  the  Hindus,  and  best  known  as 
the  Madras  system,  was  inaugurated  as  a  philanthropic 
movement  in  the  British  Isles,  and  carried  from  there 
into  America  and  other  colonies.  The  fathers  of  the 
movement  were  Andrew  Bell  and  Joseph  Lancaster. 

Andrew  Bell. — Andrew  Bell  (1753-183 2)  was  a 
Scotchman,  born  and  educated  at  St.  Andrews,  Scot- 
land, of  whose  university  he  was  a  graduate.  He  re- 
sided in  Virginia  seven  years.     On  his  return  he  took 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    359 

orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  and  was  sent  to 
Madras,  India,  to  assume  charge  of  an  orphans'  home 
estabhshed  by  the  East  India  Company,  to  care  for  the 
orphans  of  Enghsh  soldiers.  There  was  a  salary  at- 
tached to  the  appointment,  which,  however,  Doctor 
Bell  refused  to  accept  because  unselfish  benevolence 
had  prompted  him  to  undertake  the  work.  When  he 
found  that  he  could  not  supply  the  kind  of  teachers 
most  needed,  he  adopted  the  system  of  mutual  instruc- 
tion sometimes  employed  in  Hindu  schools.  In  other 
words,  he  selected  the  most  capable  pupils  and  taught 
them  the  lesson  which  they,  in  turn,  were  to  teach 
classes  of  less  advanced  pupils.  From  the  very  start 
he  required  the  boys  to  do  everything,  so  far  as  pos- 
sible, for  themselves.  The  plan  succeeded  beyond  all 
expectations.  At  the  end  of  seven  years  he  found  it 
necessary,  on  account  of  failing  health,  to  return  to 
England,  where  in  1797  he  published  an  account  of 
the  experiment,  which  attracted  much  attention. 

In  1807  he  established  a  monitorial  school  in  London. 
Many  influential  people,  among  them  the  clergy,  be- 
came interested  in  the  system.  Thus  arose  the  "Na- 
tional Society  "  through  which  the  Church  of  England 
undertook  to  establish  monitorial  schools  all  over  the 
British  dominions.  The  work  prospered  greatly  under 
the  management  of  I)octor  Bell,  and  in  less  than  ten 
years  one  thousand  schools  were  estabhshed,  with  more 
than  two  hundred  thousand  children  in  attendance. 

Joseph  Lancaster. — In  1798  Joseph  Lancaster,  an 
English  Quaker,  then  only  twenty  years  old,  opened  a 
school  in  Southwark,  London,  to  help  as  many  of  the 
barefoot,  unkempt  children  of  that  unhappy  part  of 
the  city  as  possible  to  an  education   that  would  do 


360  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

them  real  good.  He  soon  had  a  hundred  pupils  in 
this  school.  Like  Bell  at  Madras,  of  whose  work  he 
did  not  then  know,  he  hit  upon  the  monitorial  system 
of  supplying  the  necessary  assistant  instructors,  and, 
like  Bell,  succeeded  beyond  all  expectation.  Powerful 
support  made  it  possible  for  him  to  erect  a  schoolhouse 
in  which  in  1805  he  had  under  his  care  about  a  thou- 
sand children.  The  experiment  attracted  George  III 
(1760-1820),  who,  on  a  visit  to  the  school,  was  greatly 
delighted,  and  expressed  the  wish  that  every  child  in 
his  kingdom  might  learn  to  read  the  Bible.  Influential 
patrons  and  increasing  subscriptions  made  it  possible 
for  Lancaster  to  found  a  normal  school  for  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  in  his  system.  His  attempt  to  extend 
his  system  was  a  great  success,  but  he  became  a  bank- 
rupt, and  an  association  had  to  be  formed  in  1808  to 
save  the  cause.  This  organization,  consisting  of  dis- 
senters, and  known  as  the  "British  and  Foreign  So- 
ciety," continued  Lancaster's  work  with  much  success. 
Lancaster  himself  withdrew  from  the  society  in  1818, 
and  came  to  America  to  establish  his  system  here.  He 
died  in  1838. 

Estimate. — The  monitorial  systems  of  Bell  and  Lan- 
caster opened  the  school-door  to  thousands  of  children 
who  otherwise  must  have  grown  up  in  ignorance.  The 
monitorial  schools  provided  these  children  with  a  fair 
education  in  the  elementary  subjects,  added  some  vo- 
cational and  industrial  training,  and  emphasized  re- 
ligious and  moral  instruction.  That  much  of  this 
monitorial  instruction  was  injured  by  the  drill  mechan- 
ics which  were  necessary  in  the  handling  of  large  groups 
by  monitors  goes  without  saying,  but  it  paved  the  way 
for  better  things.     Through  the  rivalry  which  sprang 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION     361 

up  between  the  two  societies  to  which  the  system  gave 
rise,  the  national  government  began  to  reah'ze  not  only 
the  possibility  of  supplying  teachers  but  also  its  official 
responsibility  to  educate  the  social  whole,  and  thus 
step  by  step  the  present  system  of  universal,  free,  and 
compulsory  education  came  into  being. 

Infant  Schools. — In  1816  Robert  Owen,  who  had 
not  heard  of  the  French  movement,  established  an 
infant  school  for  the  children  of  the  operatives  in  his 
cotton  factory  at  New  Lanark,  Scotland.  The  chil- 
dren were  not  to  be  "annoyed  with  books."  They 
were  to  be  taught  about  nature  and  common  objects, 
but  through  familiar  conversation  and  by  means  of 
models,  paintings,  maps,  etc.  In  order  that  the  edu- 
cation which  they  were  to  receive  for  about  three  years, 
beginning  at  the  age  of  three,  might  include  the  body 
and  morals  as  well  as  the  intellect,  instruction  was 
combined  with  much  singing,  outdoor  exercise,  dancing, 
and  other  amusements.  The  experiment  was  a  great 
success. 

The  plan  was  carried  to  London,  where  Samuel 
Wilderspin  became  the  great  exponent  of  the  system. 
He  unfortunately  made  his  London  school  a  small 
copy  of  what  a  school  for  older  children  usually  at- 
tempts, thus  resolving  the  experiment  into  the  process 
of  producing  infant  prodigies,  in  whose  rather  over- 
crowded curriculum  the  memory  work  left  little  room 
for  real  education.  Even  the  games  became  stereo- 
typed and  religious  instruction  an  empty  form.  He 
popularized  the  infant  school  through  lecture  tours, 
and  organized  new  schools  everywhere.  This  result 
was  greatly  hastened  by  the  organization  in  1824  of 
an  "'"'Infant  School  Society." 


362  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

About  a  dozen  years  later  Reverend  Charles  Mayo 
founded  in  London  an  organization  whose  purpose  it 
was  to  train  infant-school  teachers.  This  society, 
known  as  "The  Home  and  Colonial  School  Society," 
grafted  Pestalozzianism  upon  the  infant  school.  This 
emphasis  on  object-lessons  and  the  cultivation  of  the 
senses  redeemed  the  infant  school  somewhat  from  the 
Wilderspin  formalism,  but  failed  to  infuse  the  real 
spirit  of  Pestalozzi's  spontaneity  into  the  curriculum. 
The  desirable  result,  however,  was  largely  attained 
when  in  1874,  four  years  after  the  infant  schools  had 
become  a  part  of  the  primary  school  system  of  Great 
Britain,  some  of  the  methods  and  games  of  the  kinder- 
garten were  incorporated. 

Present  System.— The  philanthropic  movements  in- 
augurated by  Raikes,  Bell,  Lancaster,  and  others 
helped  to  wake  an  increasingly  larger  social  whole  to 
self-consciousness.  This  result  was  powerfully  aug- 
mented by  the  gradual  enfranchisement  of  the  indus- 
trial classes  which  came  about  through  the  invention 
of  the  stationary  steam-engine  and  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery and  by  the  concentration  of  population  in 
factory  towns  and  coal  and  iron  sections.  The  age-old 
conviction  of  the  governing  classes  that  the  lower 
classes  should  be  kept  down  to  their  place  thus  gradu- 
ally gave  way  to  the  conviction  that  education  was  an 
I  inherent  right  of  all  men  and  that  the  social  whole, 
through  the  government  as  the  guardian  of  this  social 
whole,  must  eventually  assume  control  of  education. 
Thus  it  came  about  that  through  much  agitation  the 
government  began  to  appoint  committees  to  look  into 
conditions  and  possibilities,  and  that  in  reply  to  re- 
ports submitted  it   passed  a   series  of  bills  through 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    363 

which  the  present  system  of  English  education  was 
established.  These  bills  generally  closely  followed  the 
great  reform  bills  through  which  new  classes  of  the 
social  whole  were  enfranchised.  The  Reform  Bill  of 
1832,  for  example,  was  followed  by  a  parhamentary 
grant  of  £20,000  a  year,  "to  be  distributed  through  the 
two  religious  educational  societies,  the  National  So- 
ciety and  the  British  and  Foreign  Society,  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  aiding  in  building  schoolhouses,  for  which 
subscriptions  had  already  been  collected."  This 
method  of  distributing  state  funds  through  church 
societies  really  greatly  retarded  the  growth  of  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  absolute  state  control.  The  matter 
was  corrected  in  1839,  when  the  Victorian  government 
appointed  a  special  committee  of  the  Privy  Council 
on  Education,  which  committee  insisted  that  a  school, 
in  order  to  share  in  the  government  funds,  must  be 
open  to  government  inspection.  In  1870,  after  the 
great  extension  of  the  franchise  of  1868,  Parliament 
finally  passed  a  bill  by  means  of  which  a  system  of 
state-organized,  state-supported,  and  state-controlled 
elementary  schools  was  established.  Among  other 
things,  this  bill  provided  that  wherever  there  was  lack . 
of  school  accommodation  the  voters  of  the  com- 
munity might  elect  a  school  board,  whose  business  it 
should  be  to  maintain  an  elementary  school.  The 
"board"  schools  thus  estabhshed  were  to  receive  a 
government  grant  for  their  support,  but  an  equal 
amount  of  money  was  to  be  raised  by  local  taxation. 
The  community  church  schools,  supported  by  volun- 
tary subscriptions,  and  therefore  known  as  "volun- 
tary" schools,  were  to  participate  in  the  government 
grant,  but  not  in  the  money  made  up  by  local  taxation, 


304  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

and  the  government  grant  in  both  cases  was  to  depend 
upon  the  report  of  government  inspectors.  Religious 
instruction,  but  not  of  a  denominational  character, 
was  permitted,  but  for  "conscience"  sake  had  to  be 
placed  at  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  the  school  day. 

The  compromise  which  permitted  the  denominational, 
or  voluntary,  schools  to  participate  in  the  government 
grants,  unfortunately  perpetuated  competition  and 
thus  serious  bitterness.  In  1899  a  central  board  of 
education  was  established  to  take  over  the  powers 
which  had,  up  to  that  time,  been  rather  awkwardly 
distributed. 

The  board  schools,  adding  local  support  to  govern- 
ment grants,  grew  rapidly  in  number,  first  because  they 
were  able  to  employ  more  and  better  teachers,  and 
then,  too,  because  the  schools  formerly  supported  by 
the  British  and  Foreign  Society  found  it  easy  to  merge 
with  them.  The  result  was  that  in  1902  there  were 
more  pupils  in  the  board  schools  than  in  the  voluntary 
schools.  The  EstabUshed  Church,  alarmed  by  the 
serious  possibilities  to  herself  as  the  guardian  of  re- 
ligion and  morals,  steadfastly  continued  to  oppose 
absolute  secularization.  Her  support  of  the  policy  of 
the  Conservatives  made  it  possible  for  the  latter  to 
push  through  Parliament  in  1902  a  measure  whereby 
the  voluntary  schools  were  allowed  to  share  the  local 
rates  as  well  as  government  grants  with  the  board 
schools.  The  measure  also  provided  for  still  more 
comprehensive  national,  county,  and  municipal  con- 
trol, but  left  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  non-conformists 
by  placing  the  supervision  of  individual  schools  in 
control  of  a  local  board  of  managers,  to  consist  of  two 
appointees   by   the  county  or  municipal  council  and 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    365 

four  selected  by  the  denomination.  The  advantageous 
position  in  which  this  arrangement  placed  the  Estab- 
lished Church  aroused  such  resentment  that  the  Liberals 
in  1904  tried  hard  to  correct  the  defect,  and,  although 
the  House  of  Lords  rejected  the  bill  which  the  Com- 
mons had  sent  up,  further  corrective  legislation  is 
altogether  likely. 

Present  Elementary  Education. — The  elementary 
education  of  an  English  child  now  begins  with  the 
infant  school,  which  he  may  enter  at  the  age  of  five 
years,  and  in  which  he  may  remain  three  years.  Here, 
as  already  explained,  he  is  engaged  in  Pestalozzian 
activities  that  have  taken  on  kindergarten  aspects, 
but  he  learns  also  the  rudiments  of  reading,  writing, 
and  numbers.  The  infant  school  paves  the  way  to  the 
board  or  the  voluntary  school,  as  the  case  may  be, 
where  attendance  continues  to  be  compulsory  up  to 
the  age  of  twelve,  or,  by  the  permission  of  the  local 
board,  up  to  fourteen.  On  the  other  hand,  children 
engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  may  secure  partial 
exemption  from  attendance  after  they  are  eleven  years 
old,  and  those  engaged  in  industries  after  they  are 
twelve.  The  course  of  studies  includes  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  drawing,  geography,  history,  physical  cul- 
ture, singing,  and  religion. 

Up  to  1900  many  larger  cities  were  permitted  to 
establish  higher  grade  board  schools,  in  which  courses 
were  offered  in  competition  with  those  of  the  endowed 
secondary  "public,"  or  grammar,  and  private  schools. 
In  response  to  protests,  this  matter  was  settled  by 
fixing  upon  fifteen  years  as  the  upper  age  limit  for 
pupils  in  these  higher  grade  board,  or  "provided," 
schools.     The   additional    three-year    free    curriculum 


366  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

puts  emphasis  upon  vocational  education  in  connection 
with  the  general  subjects,  and  is  intended  for  pupils 
who  can  remain  beyond  the  compulsory  attendance 
age.  At  this  writing  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the  chil- 
dren remain  for  this  course.  On  the  other  hand,  large 
numbers  of  those  who  leave  school  at  the  end  of  the 
compulsory-attendance  limit  enter  evening  continua- 
tion schools,  of  which,  however,  there  do  not  seem  to 
be  a  sufi&cient  number,  for  they  bridge  the  way  to  the 
specialized  schools  of  science  and  art  maintained  by 
special  grants  of  the  English  Government. 

It  remains  to  add  that  some  sixty  normal  or  training 
colleges,  all  under  government  inspection,  have  been 
established  to  provide  qualified  teachers  for  elementary 
schools  of  all  kinds. 

Secondary  Education. — Up  to  1902  there  was  almost 
no  provision  made  for  the  secondary  education  of  the 
middle  class  and  working  people.  The  secondary  edu- 
cation of  the  social  ehte  of  England,  as  Doctor  Duggan 
puts  it,  has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  endowed  "public" 
and  "grammar"  schools,  and  of  "private  adventure" 
schools. 

Public  Schools. — ^The  seven  English  "public"  schools, 
namely,  Charterhouse,  Eton,  Harrow,  Rugby,  Shrews- 
bury, Westminster,  and  Winchester,  are  all  aristo- 
cratic boarding-schools,  highly  endowed  and  more 
than  three  centuries  old.  With  them  must  be  placed 
the  famous  day-schools,  St.  Paul's  and  Merchant 
Taylors'  in  London.  They  all  prepare  directly  for 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  somewhat  in  the  same  sense 
as  the  gymnasiums  of  Germany  and  the  lyceums  of 
France  prepare  for  similar  universities,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  mother  tongue,  the  modern  languages, 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    367 

and  the  natural  sciences  have  been  admitted  into  the 
curriculum,  Latin  and  Greek  still  hold  their  own. 
Their  e£&ciency,  however,  has  been  vastly  improved 
by  reforms  begiiming  with  Doctor  Thomas  Arnold. 

Thomas  Arnold. — Doctor  Arnold  was  made  head 
master  of  Rugby  in  1828,  and  the  reforms  which  he 
introduced  there  gradually  permeated  into  the  atmos- 
phere of  the  other  great  schools.  He  set  up  new 
standards  of  excellence  that  have  persisted  through  a 
long  succession  of  masters.  To  begin  with,  Arnold 
made  promotion  depend  not  upon  routine  work  but 
upon  scholarship  and  merit  as  far  as  this  was  possible 
through  examinations.  He  governed  the  boys  not 
by  force  but  by  vigorous  appeal  to  all  that  was  best 
in  them.  In  place  of  the  brutal  system  of  "fagging," 
which  requires  students  of  the  lower  classes  to  per- 
form menial  services  for  those  of  the  upper  classes, 
he  introduced  a  system  of  responsible  supervision  by 
the  upper-class  men  over  younger  boys,  thus  paving 
the  way  for  what  is  now  called  "student  government." 

Grammar-Schools. — The  grammar-schools  of  England, 
like  the  preparatory  schools,  are  endowed  private 
schools,  scattered  all  over  the  country,  many  of  them 
as  old  as  the  public,  or  preparatory,  schools.  Like  the 
latter,  they  admit  children  anywhere  between  seven 
and  ten  years  of  age,  and  keep  them  in  some  cases  until 
they  are  eighteen.  The  celebrated  grammar-school  at 
Stratford-on-Avon,  where  Shakespeare  learned  Latin, 
still  remains  the  type. 

Private  Schools. — After  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  secon- 
dary schools  having  a  "modern  side"  to  compete  with 
the  "classical  side"  sprang  up  in  great  number.  They 
were  founded  in  most  cases  by  stock  companies,  as 


368  raSTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

private  enterprises,  from  which  they  take  their  name. 
These  schools  were  practically  the  first  secondary 
schools  to  provide  for  girls,  and  they  have  won  much 
praise  for  excellency  of  curriculum  and  spirit. 

The  Forster  Education  Bill  of  1902  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  secondary  schools  by  the  local  authori- 
ties, thus  accepting  the  modern  idea  that  the  public 
treasury  should  contribute  not  only  to  the  support  of 
elementary  but  also  secondary  and  higher  education. 
This  support  is  now  given  to  all  secondary  schools, 
private  and  public,  which  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  National  Board  of  Education,  and  serves  as  a 
powerful  stimulus.  To  receive  this  state  support  the 
school  must  comply  with  the  rulings  of  the  "board" 
on  questions  of  curriculum,  length  of  term,  hours  of 
attendance,  and  inspection.  Twenty-five  per  cent  of 
the  students  in  the  school  receiving  "grants"  must 
come  from  the  public  elementary  schools,  and  no  re- 
ligious test  is  allowed.  More  than  a  thousand  secon- 
dary schools  of  England  now  receive  such  aid,  about 
one-third  of  which  are  of  the  newer  schools  founded 
by  local  authorities. 

Higher  Education. — Among  the  most  celebrated  uni- 
versities in  the  world  are  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
"Their  origin,"  as  Doctor  Painter  puts  it,  "is  lost  in 
the  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages."  Oxford  comprises 
twenty-three  separate  colleges  and  Cambridge  nine- 
teen. Each  of  the  separate  colleges  has  its  own  presi- 
dent, rector,  or  provost,  while  the  general  or  univer- 
sity government  is  administered  by  a  chancellor. 
These  universities  are  maintained  by  magnificent  en- 
dowments. Candidates  for  degrees  must  reside  at 
the  college  for  three  academic  years,  and  pass  a  satis- 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    369 

factory  examination  before  a  university  board  of  ex- 
aminers. Through  the  will  of  Cecil  Rhodes,  the  Eng- 
lish money-king  of  Africa,  in  which  he  provided  for 
scholarships,  students  have  for  some  years  been  ad- 
mitted from  foreign  countries.  The  candidates  for 
such  admission  must  be  able  to  pass  rigid  intellectual, 
moral,  and  physical  examination  conducted  in  their 
own  country  at  set  times  by  accredited  examiners. 

The  University  of  London  was  created  by  royal 
charter  in  1836.  In  1901  it  ceased  to  be  only  an  ex- 
amining body  and  became  a  teaching  institution. 
This  university  is  now  a  confederation  of  twenty-six 
colleges  and  schools,  organized  into  eight  faculties, 
including  pedagogy,  and  all  well  articulated  with  mu- 
nicipal schools. 

Oxford  and  Cambridge  continued  to  merit  the  criti- 
cisms of  Locke  and  Bacon  almost  up  to  the  present. 
They  are,  however,  yielding  to  modern  pressure. 
Laboratory  courses  in  science  have  been  introduced, 
the  granting  of  degrees  is  no  longer  conditioned  by 
theological  requirements,  extension  courses  have  been 
organized,  and  women  are  admitted. 

After  1850  England  encouraged  the  establishment 
of  "municipal  universities  better  adjusted  to  modern 
needs,  progressive  in  spirit  and  purpose,  granting  de- 
grees equally  to  men  and  women,  and  closely  articu- 
lated with  municipal  public  schools,"  and  such  univer- 
sities have  been  established  by  Manchester,  Leeds, 
Liverpool,  Birmingham,  and  Bristol.  They  are  sup- 
ported chiefly  by  the  cities,  but  also  receive  parliamen- 
tary grants  and  private  bequests.  The  three  colleges 
of  Wales,  namely,  Aberystwyth,  Bangor,  and  Cardifif, 
confederated  in  1893  and  became  the  University  of 
Wales. 


370  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Estimate. — The  conservatism  everywhere  so  pro- 
nounced in  the  slow  process  of  educational  reforms  in 
England  in  the  end  proves  an  inestimable  blessing. 
To  it  has  been  due  the  common  coalition  between  the 
lords  and  the  clergy  in  political  crises  when  educational 
reforms  would  have  been  destructive  revolutions,  as 
in  France,  and  this  coalition  of  conservatives  has  saved 
the  church  as  the  guardian  of  religion  from  the  stulti- 
fying humiliation  to  militarism,  as  in  Germany.  More- 
over, the  educational  reforms  of  England,  just  because 
they  have  been  less  precipitate,  have  had  a  steadying 
influence  in  the  evolution  of  colonial  systems,  as  in 
America  and  Canada. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Myers'  "General  History." 

2.  Klemm's  "European  Schools." 

3.  Prince's  "Methods  in  German  Schools." 

4.  Seeley's  "The  German  School  System." 

5.  Russell's  "German  Higher  Schools." 

6.  Richard's  "The  School  System  of  France." 

7.  Parson's  "French  Schools  Through  American  Eyes." 

8.  Barnard's  "English  Pedagogy." 

9.  Gill's  "Systems  of  Education." 

10.  Balfour's  "Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland." 

11.  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  III. 

12.  Duggan's  "History  of  Education." 

13.  Graves'  "Great  Educators  of  Three  Centuries." 

14.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

15.  Spencer's  "Education." 

QUESTIONS 

I.  Account  for  the  philanthropic  movement  to  which  Rous- 
seau, Pestalozzi,  and  many  successors  contributed,  and  state  the 
results. 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    371 

2.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  rise  of  educational  systems  that 
foster  patriotism  and  efficiency?  Name  several  notable  exam- 
ples. 

3.  To  what  educational  efficiencies  have  European  nations 
had  to  resort  in  their  recent  competition  with  one  another? 

4.  How  may  we  obtain  a  definite  general  view  of  the  German 
system  of  education?    Why? 

5.  What  was  the  purp>ose  of  the  HohenzoUerns  in  adopting 
the  sixteenth-century  Reformation,  and  to  what  educational 
reforms  as  means  to  the  end  did  they  resort?  What  part  did 
successive  HohenzoUerns  play  in  the  accomplishment  of  their 
ambitious  poUcy  ? 

6.  At  what  psychological  moment  did  Frederick  William  II 
introduce  the  cherished  system  of  centralization  in  school  ad- 
ministration, and  into  what  details  did  his  reforms  extend? 

7.  Why  has  the  kindergarten  had  no  place  in  the  German 
school  system? 

8.  Account  for  the  intensely  practical  and  nationalistic  ten- 
dency in  the  higher  education  of  Germany  since  1866  and  1871. 
What  always  was  the  attitude  of  William  II? 

9.  Who  attends  the  Volksschulen  ?  What  purpose  did  the 
HohenzoUerns  trj'  to  work  out  through  these  schools?  How 
have  the  clergy  and  the  schoolmasters  helped  to  force  this  pre- 
scriptive yoke  upon  the  masses? 

10.  How  have  the  ends  of  HohenzoUem  militarism  been  served 
by  the  entrance  conditions,  curriculum,  and  the  teachers  in 
three  systems  of  secondary  schools  ?  How  have  these  ends  been 
conserved  in  the  education  of  German  women? 

11.  Account  for  the  large  number  of  German  universities 
and  their  prestige. 

12.  Explain  the  serious  violations  of  educational  idealism  of 
which  the  pan-German  national  system  of  education  has  been 
guUty. 

13.  In  whose  hands  was  education  very  largely  in  France 
before  the  establishment  of  the  first  republic? 

14.  Explain  the  origin  of  "infant  schools"  in  France  and  their 
absorption  into  the  national  system. 

15.  Explain  the  educational  plan  of  the  founders  of  the  First 
Republic,  and  its  fate. 

16.  Explain  the  admirable  system  of  education  which  Nape- 


372  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Icon  inaugurated,  and  how  he  healed  the  breach  which  the 
national  convention  had  made  between  the  church  and  state. 
How  did  the  universities  fare  at  his  hands? 

17.  Explain  the  conciliating  and  retrogressive  attitude  of  the 
restored  Bourbons  toward  education. 

18.  Who  was  Guizot,  and  how  did  he  reconcile  the  church 
with  state  control  of  schools?  What  did  he  do  for  teachers? 
What  did  he  say? 

ig.  What  did  Louis  Napoleon  do  for  education,  and  why  did 
he  restore  denominational  primary  schools? 

20.  Account  for  the  educational  policy  of  Gambetta  and  his 
associates.  Explain  in  detail  the  very  complete  system  of  school 
supervision  to  which  the  schools  of  the  Third  Republic  are 
subject. 

21.  Of  what  school  problems  has  the  Third  Republic  disposed 
since  1881  ? 

22.  How  may  the  education  of  the  French  child  now  begin? 
Describe  the  two  grades  of  elementary  schools  open  to  all  French 
children. 

23.  What  two  kinds  of  secondary  schools  flourish  in  France? 
How  are  they  supported?  By  whom  attended?  Compare  the 
entrance  conditions  and  elective  possibilities  of  these  high 
schools  with  the  despotism  of  the  German  system,  and  justify 
your  preference. 

24.  How  has  France  provided  for  the  secondary  education 
of  women?  Compare  the  opportunities  of  the  French  girl  with 
those  of  the  German,  English,  and  American  girls. 

25.  Explain  the  extensive  reorganization  of  French  higher 
education  since  1896.  To  what  extent  are  the  universities  sub- 
ject to  the  state?  Consult  reference  works  on  the  superior 
technical  and  professional  institutions  for  which  France  is  now 
so  celebrated. 

26.  Why  did  the  educational  interests  of  the  English  industrial 
classes  suffer  so  long,  and  how  did  philanthropy  come  to  the 
rescue  ? 

27.  Account  for  the  origin  and  success  of  two  English  "charity 
school"  associations. 

28.  Who  was  Robert  Raikes?  Explain  the  success  of  his 
Sunday-schools,  and  the  result  to  the  cause  of  education. 

29.  What  was  the  Madras  system?     Through  whom  was  it 


PRESENT  NATIONAL  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION    373 

brought  to  England,  and  with  what  success?     Account  for  the 
visit  of  George  III  to  the  school  of  Joseph  Lancaster. 

30.  Explain  the  origin  and  success  of  Robert  Owen's  "infant 
schools,"  and  the  modifications  introduced  into  this  movement 
by  Samuel  Wilderspin  and  the  Reverend  Charles  Mayo. 

31.  What  other  events  besides  the  philanthropic  movements 
finally  induced  the  English  Government  to  provide  educational 
facilities  for  the  industrial  classes? 

32.  What  governmental  action  retarded  the  growth  of  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  absolute  state  control  of  schools,  and  how  were 
matters  settled  by  the  Victorian  government? 

33.  Account  for  the  English  voluntary  schools  and  board 
schools  in  origin,  curriculum,  and  maintenance.  Account  for 
the  rapid  growth  in  number  of  the  board  schools.  Why  are  the 
"non-conformists"  displeased  with  the  Parliamentary  Act  of 
1902,  and  what  are  the  prospects? 

34.  How  may  the  education  of  the  English  child  now  begin? 
Explain  the  attendance  requirements  and  curriculum  of  the 
English  board  and  voluntary  schools. 

35.  What  are  the  "higher  grade  board"  schools  of  England, 
and  how  do  they  compare  in  popularity  with  the  continuation 
schools  ? 

36.  How  does  England  provide  herself  with  teachers  ?  What 
has  she  done  for  women? 

37.  What  provisions  for  secondary  education  existed  in  Eng- 
land before  1902? 

38.  Explain  the  function,  curriculum,  and  general  character 
of  the  famous  English  "preparatory"  schools.  What  do  these 
schools  owe  to  Doctor  Arnold?  Compare  the  grammar-schools 
and  private  schools  with  the  endowed  secondary  schools. 

39.  Explain  the  origin,  curriculum,  and  prestige  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.     What  did  Cecil  Rhodes  do  for  Oxford? 

40.  Explain  the  origin  of  London  University,  and  the  great 
changes  it  has  recently  undergone. 

41.  What  are  the  "municipal  colleges"  and  "university  col- 
leges" of  recent  England? 

42.  Compare  the  adjustment  of  conflicting  claims  in  English 
education  with  that  of  Germany  and  France. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  UNITED  STATES 

The  educational  activities  of  the  American  colonies 
were  closely  patterned  after  the  mother-country  sys- 
tem. The  colonial  transplantation  of  education  was 
followed  by  a  nationalizing  movement  which,  for  a 
time,  was  seriously  checked  by  the  very  revolution 
that  produced  the  new  nation,  but  from  which  check, 
or  depression,  there  was  a  "great  revival"  before  the 
Civil  War,  and  from  which  our  present  system,  full  of 
faults  but  full  of  glorious  prospects,  ultimately  de- 
veloped. 

AMERICAN   COLONIES 

The  thirteen  colonies  came  into  existence  when 
Europe  was  still  in  the  grip  of  the  fierce  agitations  of 
the  Reformation,  and  many  of  the  colonists,  most  of 
them  Protestant,  came  to  America  as  refugees,  hoping 
to  establish  in  the  New  World  institutions — religious, 
political,  and  educational — that  should  confonn  with 
convictions  born  of  persecutions  in  the  mother  country. 
At  the  opening  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  far 
into  the  eighteenth,  the  educational  institutions  in 
most  of  the  European  states  were  controlled  and  sup- 
ported by  the  church  and  religious  orders,  assisted 
financially  by  private  benevolences.  Coming  to  the 
New  World  for  conscience  sake,  as  most  of  tbem  did, 

374 


THE  UNITED  STATES  375 

the  colonists  brought  with  them  the  conviction  that 
religion  was  fundamental  in  education,  and  that  there- 
fore education  should  be  shaped  and  controlled  by  the 
church.  Nevertheless,  this  conception  had  begun  to 
combine  with  a  new  conception  in  the  countries  of  the 
Reformation,  in  several  of  which  "guilds"  had  created 
a  sense  of  municipal  responsibility,  and  because  the 
great  reformers  themselves,  especially  Luther  and 
Calvin,  contended  that,  in  order  to  rnake  education 
universal,  the  state  should  at  least  establish,  if  not 
control,  the  system.  This  enriched  conception  of  edu- 
cation became  the  ideal  of  the  mass  of  the  people, 
especially  in  Holland  and  Scotland,  where  the  Reforma- 
tion was  primarily  a  religious  and  theological  move- 
ment; but  in  France  and  England,  where  the  Reforma- 
tion was  largely  an  ecclesiastical  and  political  move- 
ment, the  new  ideal  was  adopted  only  by  the  Huguenots 
and  Puritans.  The  two  conceptions  appeared  promptly 
in  the  colonies.  In  the  South,  where  the  colonies  were 
organized  more  usually  under  the  dominating  influ- 
ence of  the  Anglican  communion,  education  became 
particularistic,  and  the  rights  of  the  masses  were  long 
ignored.  In  the  North,  on  the  contrary,  and  wherever 
the  ideals  of  Luther  and  Calvin  were  largely  present, 
education  was  gradually,  if  not  promptly,  organized 
on  democratic  lines.  Thus  arose  three  types  of  schools: 
the  selective  in  the  South,  the  parochial  in  the  middle 
colonies,  and  the  governmental  in  New  England. 

Southern  Colonies. — In  Virginia,  and  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent  in  other  Southern  colonies,  England 
reproduced  herself.'  The  colony  began  (1607)  as  a 
venture  by  gentlemen  whose  main  purpose  it  was  to 
enrich  themselves  through  the  development  of  vast 


376  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

plantations,  and  then,  if  opportunity  presented  itself, 
return  to  higher  social  positions  in  the  mother  country. 
These  great  landowners  became  centres  of  widely 
scattered  social  wholes,  miniature  domains  in  which 
the  class  distinctions  commonly  supported  by  the 
Church  of  England  were  largely  reproduced  not  only 
.in  matters  political,  but  especially  also  in  education. 
|The  planter  intrusted  the  education  of  his  children  and 
special  proteges  to  the  clergy  and  tutors,  and  pres- 
ently, when  possible  or  desirable,  sent  them  to  Europe 
to  complete  such  education.  Here  and  there  secondary 
schools  were  established  by  private  interests,  but  neither 
the  church  nor  the  government  took  any  direct  part 
in  the  establishment  of  schools.,.  Trade  apprentice- 
ships were  usually  the  only  provisions  made  for  the 
education  of  the  dependent  and  industrial  classes. 
Where  elementary  schools  were  established  for  the 
common  people  they  were  called  "poor  schools,"  and 
maintained  by  charitable  and  voluntary  subscription^i 
For  half  a  century  after  the  foundation  of  Jamestown 
schools  were  almost  unknown,  and  successive  genera- 
tions grew  up  in  comparative  ignorance.  This  aris- 
tocratic conservatism  is  voiced  in  Sir  William  Berkeley's 
famous  outburst  in  1671,  when  he  wrote:  "I  thank 
God  that  there  are  no  free  schools  and  printing,  and 
I  hope  we  shall  not  have  them  for  a  hundred  years; 
for  learning  has  brought  disobedience  and  heresy  and 
sects  into  the  world,  and  printing  has  divulged  them 
and  libels  against  the  best  government.  God  keep 
us  from  both." 

The  same  general  conditions  prevailed  in  the  other 
Southern  colonies.  It  was  only  in  colonies  established 
by    dissenters,   such    as   the  Scotch   Presbyterians  in 


THE  UNITED  STATES  377 

North  Carolina,  that  any  attempts  were  made  to  estab- 
lish public  schools. 

William  and  Mary  College. — The  provincial  govern- 
ment, aided  by  the  London  Company,  the  king  him- 
self, and  the  Anglican  bishops,  made  early  but  unsuc- 
cessful efforts  to  establish  secondary  schools  and  a 
college.  The  main  purpose  was  to  provide  the  church 
with  ministers  and  to  promote  piety.  In  1692,  after 
constant  renewal  of  efforts,  WiUiam  and  Mary  College, 
named  for  the  home  sovereigns,  was  established  at 
Wilhamsburg,  Va.  When  the  sum  of  twenty-five 
hundred  pounds  had  been  raised  by  subscription,  the 
lieutenant-governor  heading  the  list,  the  Reverend 
James  Blair,  commissary  of  the  bishop  in  Virginia,  was 
sent  to  London  to  secure  a  charter.  This  was  granted, 
and  the  king  endowed  the  new  institution  with  rich 
gifts  of  land  and  moneys,  to  which  the  planters  and  the 
Colonial  Assembly  also  contributed.  The  college  was 
thus  opened  under  most  promising  conditions.  It  was 
founded,  as  stated  in  the  charter,  "to  the  end  that  the 
church  of  Virginia  may  be  furnished  with  a  seminary 
of  ministers  of  the  gospel,  and  that  the  youth  may  be 
piously  educated  in  good  letters  and  manners,  and  that 
the  Christian  faith  may  be  propagated  among  the 
Western  Indians  to  the  glory  of  Almighty  God."  The 
course  of  study  was  suited  to  the  end  in  view.  It 
embraced  divinity,  language,  and  natural  science — a 
"divinity,"  says  Howison,  "shaped  and  moulded  at 
every  point  by  the  Hturgy  and  creed  of  the  English 
Church;  languages  which  filled  the  college  walls  with 
boys  hating  Greek  and  Latin  grammars;  and  natural 
philosophy,  which  was  just  beginning  to  believe  that 
the  earth  revolved  around  the  sun,  rather  than  the  sun 


378  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

round  the  earth."  This,  the  second  college  founded  in 
America,  rendered  admirable  service,  for  it  furnished 
not  only  ministers  of  the  gospel  but  also  many  of  the 
scholars,  jurists,  generals,  and  other  leaders  of  the 
great  struggle  for  independence,  and,  although  almost 
ruined  by  the  Revolution,  it  recovered  and,  with  a 
course  completely  adjusted  to  the  changing  environ- 
ment of  our  country,  it  has  survived  and  continued  to 
contribute  with  honor  to  the  cause  of  higher  education. 

The  Middle  Colonies. — The  middle  colonies  were 
settled  by .  religious  refugees  from  Holland,  France, 
Scotland,  Germany,  etc.  They  brought  with  them  the 
strong  denominational  convictions  to  which  they  had 
fallen  heir  through  the  Reformation  in  the  mother 
country.  They  all  held  to  the  fundamental  principle 
of  the  Reformation,  namely,  that  the  Bible  should  be 
the  rule  of  faith  and  life,  that  it  should  therefore  be 
read  by  every  one,  and  that  there  should  be  elementary 
schools;  but,  jealously  guarding  the  denominational 
convictions  in  which  they  differed,  they  established 
schools  attached  to  the  ''parish"  church,  which  were, 
therefore,  known  as  parish,  or  parochial,  schools. 

New  York. — The  Dutch  brought  with  them  to  New 
Amsterdam  (New  York)  and  the  villages  of  the  colony 
the  excellent  school  system  of  Reformed  Holland,  In 
which  control  was  distributed  between  the  church  and. 
the  state.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  elementary 
branches,  these  schools  taught  the  catechism  and 
prayers  of  the  Reformed  Church.  In  short,  the  New 
Netherlanders  holding  to  the  idea  of  universal  educa- 
tion committed  themselves  almost  completely  to 
the  policy  of  elementary  schools,  thus  acting  in  sharp 
contrast  with   the  Anglican  policy   of   the   Southern 


THE  UNITED  STATES  379 

colonies.  After  1652  there  were  some  attempts  at 
Latin,  or  "grammar,"  schools  in  New  Amsterdam. 

When,  however,  in  1674  the  English  took  final  pos- 
session of  the  New  Netherlands,  the  parish  schools 
failed  to  secure  the  support  of  the  new  masters,  and 
thus  weakened  they  were  gradually  displaced  by  the 
random  policy  of  the  Southern  colonies. 

Pennsylvania. — The  first  settlers  of  Pennsylvania 
came  from  various  parts  of  western,  northern,  and 
central  Europe.  The  new  colony  of  Penn,  under- 
standing the  hard  conditions  of  Europe,  and  appre- 
ciating the  value  of  such  immigration  into  Pennsyl- 
vania, welcomed  and  invited  these  refugees.  They, 
in  turn,  coming  for  conscience  sake,  brought  with  them, 
as  before  noted,  the  profound  denominational  convic- 
tion to  which  they  had  been  converted  in  the  home- 
lands, and  to  safeguard  these  interests  for  themselves 
and  their  posterity,  they  all  established  their  own  schools 
side  by  side  with  their  own  churches,  thus  committing 
the  colony  inevitably  to  the  policy  of  parish,  or  de- 
nominational, church  schools  from  the  very  beginning. 

That  this  policy  was  not  originally  in  Penn's  mind 
appears  from  the  plan  of  proprietary  government  which 
he  drew  up  himself  in  1682,  in  which  he  mentions 
"public"  schools.  In  1683,  the  year  in  which  Phila- 
delphia was  founded,  the  council  of  the  province  actu- 
ally ordered  the  establishment  of  such  a  school  and  in- 
vited Enoch  Flower  from  England  to  teach  it.  In  the 
charter  which  he  granted  in  171 1  he  defines  his  pur- 
poses at  length  and  with  prophetic  foresight.  Said 
he:  "Whereas  the  prosperity  and  welfare  of  any  peo- 
ple depend,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  good  education 
of  youth,  and  their  early  introduction  into  the  prin- 


3,S0  HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION 

ciples  of  true  religion  and  virtue,  and  qualifying  them 
to  serve  their  country  and  themselves  by  breeding 
them  in  reading,  writing,  and  learning  of  languages 
and  useful  arts  and  sciences,  suitable  to  their  sex,  age, 
and  degree — which  cannot  be  effected  in  any  manner 
so  well  as  by  erecting  'public  schools'  for  the  purposes 
aforesaid,"  provisions  are  hereby  guaranteed  and  or- 
dered. The  Friends  soon  (1689)  started  the  *'Penn 
Charter  School,"  which,  although  an  endowed  secon- 
dary school  itself,  open  free  only  to  the  poor,  presently 
established  elementary  schools  throughout  the  city  as 
branches.  They  also  established  elementary  schools, 
with  some  secondary  schools,  in  close  connection  with 
their  meeting-houses  throughout  the  colony,  thus  per- 
haps unconsciously  committing  themselves  to  the  con- 
gregational policy  which  the  new  immigrations  were 
bringing  into  the  colony.  The  large  influx  of  Luther- 
ans, with  an  original  policy  very  like  that  of  Penn, 
also  promptly  erected  their  own  schools  side  by  side 
with  their  churches  wherever  they  settled.  One  of 
their  number,  the  learned  Francis  Daniel  Pastorius, 
who  laid  out  Germantown  in  1683,  established  the  first 
private  secondary  school  in  1701,  and  taught  for  many 
years.  The  Mennonites  included  in  their  parish  sys- 
tem the  famous  schools  of  Christopher  Dock.  This 
"pious  schoolmaster  of  the  Skippack"  came  in  1714, 
taught  school  many  years  with  true  Pestalozzian  in- 
spiration, and  in  1750  completed  "the  first  elaborate 
educational  treatise  in  America."  What  was  done  for 
education  by  the  Friends,  the  Lutherans,  and  the  Men- 
nonites was  duplicated  everywhere  by  the  Reformed, 
the  Presbyterians,  the  Baptists,  the  Moravians,  the 
Catholics,  etc.     Such  attempts  at  "grammar-schools," 


THE  UNITED  STATES  381 

or  secondary  education,  as  that  of  Pastorius,  were  un- 
dertaken especially  by  the  Moravians,  as  at  Bethlehem, 
Nazareth,  and  Lititz.  The  Presbyterian  log  college 
at  Neshaminy  became  the  cradle  of  Princeton  and 
other  colleges.  The  Reverend  Michael  Schlatter  was 
the  great  educational  champion  of  the  Reformed 
Church. 

When  the  tide  of  immigration  began  to  extend  into 
western  and  northern  Pennsylvania,  voluntary  sub- 
scription schools,  established  and  maintained  by  neigh- 
borhoods, were  substituted  for  the  parish  or  congre- 
gational schools.  The  schools  established  in  Wyoming 
valley,  settled  by  Connecticut  colonists,  were  really 
public  schools. 

A  conspicuous  attempt  to  produce  school  teachers 
who  should  fuse  the  various  immigrant  nationalities  of 
Pennsylvania  into  a  common  citizenship  was  made  by 
Benjamin  Franklin  in  1743,  when  he  established  an 
"academy"  at  Philadelphia,  whose  curriculum  is 
starthng  in  fulness  of  content  and  practical  wisdom  of 
selection. 

The  colonists  of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  were  in- 
terested in  education  from  the  beginning,  and  so  far 
as  action  was  taken  to  establish  schools  before  the 
Revolution,  these  colonists  were  committed  in  part  to 
the  parish  system,  while  random  private  attempts  were 
more  usual. 

New  England  Colonies. — The  people  who  founded 
the  colony  of  Massachusetts  had  left  comfort,  home, 
and  wealth  and  come  to  the  New  World  to  establish  a 
commonwealth  in  which  they  might  worship  God  un- 
hindered by  king  or  priest,  and  according  to  the  dic- 
tates of  their  own  conscience,  guided  only  by  an  open 


382  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Bible.  Socially  most  of  them  belonged  to  the  middle 
class  and  were  generally  well  educated.  They  were 
not  disturbed  by  any  aristocratic  social  views,  as  was 
the  case  in  the  Southern  colonies,  nor  by  conflicting 
denominational  interests,  as  was  the  case  in  the  middle 
colonies.  Among  their  great  leaders  were  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  graduates,  who  brought  with  them  the 
precious  seeds  of  learning.  Within  a  few  years  of  the 
landing  of  the  Mayflower,  when  their  difficulties  and 
perils  were  still  very  real,  these  sturdy  Pilgrims,  per- 
ceiving the  relation  of  means  to  end,  planned  a  system 
of  education  that  should  guarantee  to  their  posterity 
the  advantages  of  the  Christian  commonwealth  which 
they  had  come  to  found. 

Harvard  College. — To  provide  themselves  with  faith- 
ful pastors  and  leaders  was  the  first  concern  of  the 
colony.  Accordingly,  in  1636  "the  general  court 
(legislature)  voted  an  appropriation  of  four  hundred 
pounds  to  found  a  school,  which,  after  its  first  private 
benefactor,  the  Reverend  John  Harvard,  received  the 
name  of  Harvard  College."  The  other  New  England 
colonies,  moved  by  the  same  interests,  cheerfully  and 
liberally  sustained  this  educational  institution  of  Massa- 
chusetts. The  college  was  opened  in  1638  and  the 
first  class  was  graduated  In  1642.  The  entrance  re- 
quirements were  in  harmony  with  the  purpose  of  the 
college  and  the  humanism  of  the  century,  and  were 
stated  in  1642  as  follows:  "When  any  scholar  is  able 
to  understand  Tully,  or  such  like  classical  author  ex 
tempore,  and  make  and  speak  true  Latin  in  verse  and 
prose  .  .  .  and  decline  perfectly  the  paradigms  of 
nouns  and  verbs  in  the  Greek  tongue,  let  him  then, 
and  not  before,  be  capable  of  admission  into  the  col- 


THE  UNITED   STATES  383 

lege."  Private  instruction  and  private  schools  founded 
in  some  towns  made  it  possible  to  meet  these  require- 
ments. 

Town  Schools. -i-ln  1647,  after  some  tentative  legis- 
lation, the  general  court  of  Massachusetts  passed  a 
remarkable  educational  bill,  in  the  carrying  out  of 
which  Massachusetts  became  the  first  founder  of  com- 
mon schools  in  America.  That  the  framers  of  this 
document  had  not  lost  the  religious  impulse  of  the 
Reformation  appears  in  the  strong  words  of  the  pre- 
amble, where  it  is  stated  that  the  purpose  of  the  schools 
to  be  founded  is  to  thwart  "one  chief  object  of  that  old 
deluder,  Satan,  to  keep  men  from  a  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures."  The  law  provided  that  every  township 
containing  fifty  families  should  maintain  an  elementary 
school,  and  that  the  teacher  should  be  paid  partly 
from  taxes  levied  and  partly  from  tuition  fees.  As 
soon  as  the  township  contained  one  hundred  families, 
it  was  to  estabhsh  and  maintain  a  Latin,  or  grammar, 
school,  whose  course  of  study  fitted  the  boy  to  enter 
Harvard  College?)  Owing  to  the  concentration  of  the 
population  necessary  on  account  of  Indian  perils,  and 
for  convenience,  the  schools  established  by  the  law 
really  became  town  schools.  In  the  conception  of  this 
law,  the  State  was  the  instrument  of  the  church,  but 
the  law  remained  the  ideal  even  after  the  school  had 
become  completely  secularized.  All  the  other  colonies 
of  New  England,  except  Rhode  Island,  adopted  the 
Massachusetts  idea.  On  account  of  fanatical  devotion 
to  freedom  of  thought,  Rhode  Island  adopted  the  ran- 
dom schools  of  the  Southern  colonies. 

Decline  of  Town  Schools. — -The  cause  of  the  town 
schools  in  New  England  suffered  at  least  three  set- 


384  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

backs  within  the  first  century,  from  which  they  failed 
to  recover  before  the  Revolution.  The  first  two  set- 
backs came  from  the  mother  country  and  the  third 
from  within  the  colonies  themselves. 

When  in  1649  England  became  a  commonwealth, 
and  Puritanism  gained  the  ascendancy  at  home,  uni- 
versity men  ceased  to  migrate  to  the  colonies,  thus  de- 
priving the  second  generation  of  the  inspiring  leader- 
ship with  which  colonial  education  had  been  ushered 
into  its  first  life. 

The  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  (1660-1688)  swung 
England  like  a  pendulum  from  the  extreme  of  Puri- 
tanism to  the  opposite  extreme  of  moral  tolerance  and 
theological  liberalism,  a  change  which  we  see  reflected 
in  the  Toleration  Act  of  1690,  and  in  consequence  of 
which  the  forbidding  scarlet-letter  asceticism  of  the 
colonies,  as  reflected  in  the  Salem  witchcraft  wave 
(1692),  gave  way  to  diverging  religious  beliefs  and 
toleration  of  other  sects,  thus  depriving  the  schools  of 
the  intense  religious  impulse  which  had  inspired  them 
at  first. 

The  town  schools  of  New  England  also  lost  much  of 
their  initial  efficiency  through  the  growth  of  the  town 
population  and  through  the  spread  of  colonial  popula- 
tion into  unsettled  regions.  Originally  the  settlers 
clustered  round  the  "meeting-house"  and  the  school 
both  for  devotional  reasons  and  for  protection  against 
Indians;  but  when  the  incentives  to  this  centraHzation 
gradually  disappeared,  and  the  town  spread  farther 
and  farther  away  from  the  school,  and  new  settlements 
sprang  up,  it  became  necessary  for  the  town  to  provide 
either  a  "moving"  school  or  a  "district"  school  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  democratic  demand  for  equal 
school    opportunities.     The     moving-school     teacher, 


THE  UNITED  STATES  385 

employed  by  the  responsible  town,  was  generally  well 
qualified  for  the  work,  but,  to  keep  down  expenses  and 
to  reach  a  number  of  places  in  the  year,  he  was  moved 
every  few  months.  When  self-governing  districts 
arose,  either  in  the  spreading  town  or  in  new  settlements, 
such  districts  maintained  schools  of  their  own;  but  the 
available  teacher  was  often  a  poor  teacher,  and  simply 
"kept"  school. 

This  gradual  decline  of  efficiency  in  elementary  edu- 
cation was  accompanied  by  a  similar  decline,  though 
not  so  pronounced,  in  grammar-school  efficiency  up  to 
the  Revolution.  Nevertheless,  Yale,  Dartmouth,  and 
Brown  Colleges  had  in  the  meanwhile  been  added  to 
Harvard  in  the  effort  to  supply  the  higher  education 
needed  in  the  learned  professions. 

TRANSITION 

When  in  1776  the  accredited  representatives  of  the 
thirteen  united  colonies  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  thus  proclaiming  the  birth  of  a  new 
republic,  the  colonies  were  still  very  young.  The 
Revolutionary  War  into  which  they  were  now  plunged 
taxed  their  resources  to  the  limits  of  endurance.  The 
cause  of  education  was  among  the  first  to  suffer.  Many 
of  the  schools  had  to  be  closed  because  there  were  no 
available  funds,  others  because  the  able-bodied  teach- 
ers with  the  able-bodied  boys  were  needed  in  the  war.' 
Moreover,  and  above  all  these  things,  the  stress  and 
strain  of  war  made  it  difficult  to  keep  in  mind  the 
direct  relation  of  education  to  government  and  the 
precious  things  of  life  which  government  should  guar- 
antee. 

Nevertheless,  there  were  among  the  founders  of  the 


380  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

republic  statesmen  who,  like  the  founders  of  the  first 
French  republic  in  1792,  realized  that  the  efficiency 
and  fate  of  governments  both  depend  most  directly 
upon  education  as  a  means  to  the  end.  Washington, 
Adams,  Jefferson,  and  others  believed  that  in  a  govern- 
ment "of  the  people,  for  the  people,  and  by  the  people" 
education  must  be  the  function  of  the  government 
itself,  and  that  if  the  American  republic  was  to  live 
education  must  be  universal  and  free.  Washington 
as  early  as  1790  said  to  Congress:  "There  is  nothing 
that  can  better  deserve  your  patronage  than  the  pro- 
motion of  science  and  literature.  Knowledge  is  in 
every  country  the  surest  basis  of  happiness.  In  one 
in  which  the  measures  of  government  receive  their  im- 
pression so  immediately  from  the  sense  of  the  com- 
munity, as  in  ours,  it  is  proportionally  essential."  In 
his  inaugural  address  John  Adams  said:  "The  wisdom 
and  generosity  of  the  legislature  in  making  liberal 
appropriations  in  money  for  the  benefit  of  the  schools, 
academies,  and  colleges  is  an  equal  honor  to  them  and 
their  constituents;  a  proof  of  their  veneration  of  letters 
and  science,  and  a  portent  of  great  and  lasting  good 
to  North  and  South  America,  and  to  the  world." 
Thomas  Jefferson  said:  "A  system  of  general  instruc- 
tion, which  shall  reach  every  description  of  our  citizens, 
from  the  richest  to  the  poorest,  as  it  was  the  earliest, 
so  it  shall  be  the  latest  of  all  the  public  concerns  in 
which  I  shall  permit  myself  to  take  an  interest.  Give  it 
to  us  in  any  shape,  and  receive  for  the  inestimable  boon 
the  thanks  of  the  young,  and  the  blessings  of  the  old, 
who  are  past  all  other  services  but  prayers  for  the 
prosperity  of  their  country,  and  blessings  to  those  who 
promote  it." 


THE  UNITED   STATES  387 

Although  there  were  influences  at  work  before  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  promised  an  early- 
fulfilment  of  these  hopes  and  prayers,  there  were  ob- 
stacles present,  apparently  insurmountable  obstacles, 
that  deferred  the  solution  of  the  problem  for  almost 
half  a  century.  Among  these  obstacles  were  the  prac- 
tice of  public  grants  to  private  schools,  sectarianism, 
class  prejudice,  provincialism,  and  selfishness. 

Virginia. — The  responsible  classes,  as  we  have  seen, 
took  no  real  interest  in  elementary  education  for  the 
common  people.  The  first  attempts  at  anything  re- 
sembling such  education  came  to  be  known  as  planta- 
tion "field  schools."  These  schools,  organized  by  any 
group  of  neighbors  of  their  own  accord,  were  not  re- 
sponsible to  any  higher  social  whole,  and  depended 
for  control  and  financial  support  on  the  organizing 
group.  After  the  Revolution,  however,  there  appeared 
a  growing  sentiment  in  favor  of  public  education. 
The  first  great  champion  of  the  cause  was  Thomas 
Jefferson,  who,  as  early  as  1779,  submitted  to  the  State 
legislature  an  educational  bill  providing  not  only  for 
district  schools,  supported  by  local  taxation,  but  also 
for  two-year  and  six-year  secondary  courses,  to  be 
followed  by  a  three  years'  college  course  at  William 
and  Mary  for  those  entitled  to  it,  and  to  be  supported 
from  the  public  treasury. 

Jefferson's  bill  fell  through,  but  it  was  a  seed  sown 
in  good  ground.  In  1796  a  law  permitting  counties 
to  establish  tax-supported  schools  was  passed,  and 
although  it  was  not  put  into  effect,  it  paved  the  way 
for  the  establishment  of  a  "literary"  (school)  fund  in 
1810.  In  1816,  when  this  fund  had  grown  to  a  million 
dollars,  those  in  charge  of  it  recommended  "a  system 


3SS  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

of  public  education,  including  a  university,  to  be  called 
the  University  of  Virginia,  and  such  additional  colleges, 
academics,  and  schools  as  should  diffuse  the  benefits 
of  education  through  the  commonwealth."  Although 
the  legislature  was  not  prepared  to  adopt  this  revised 
educational  system  of  Jefferson,  it  voted  (1818)  an 
appropriation  of  forty-five  thousand  dollars  from  the 
income  of  the  literary  fund  to  be  used  by  the  counties 
to  send  poor  children  to  a  proper  school. 

This  appropriation  really  delayed,  as  it  did  in  other 
States,  the  establishment  of  common  schools  at  public 
expense.  The  reasons  are  evident;  it  conveyed  the 
impression  that  public  education  was  a  "charity,"  thus 
offending  at  the  same  time  both  the  poor,  who  did  not 
like  to  be  looked  upon  as  paupers,  and  the  well-to-do, 
who  failed  to  see  how  it  benefited  them  at  all.  More- 
over, there  were  a  hundred  thousand  children  in  ques- 
tion, for  whose  accommodation  it  would  be  quite  im- 
possible to  build  schools  and  employ  teachers  with  so 
small  a  sum  of  money.  Under  these  conditions,  and 
because  it  was  almost  impossible  to  secure  graduates 
of  academies  or  colleges  to  teach  such  schools,  it  became 
necessary  to  place  most  of  the  children  in  such  schools 
as  already  existed.  To  make  matters  worse,  the  com- 
missioners to  whom  the  difficult  task  was  committed, 
were  often  incompetent  political  appointees.  Never- 
theless, during  the  twenty  years  that  the  law  remained 
in  force,  the  cause  of  public  education  was  making 
steady  progress.  The  appropriations  became  steadily 
larger,  the  school  terms  longer,  and  the  number  of 
pupils  willing  to  take  advantage  of  the  funds  kept 
growing.  Thus,  although  the  majority  of  the  school 
children   still    attended   denominational,   private,  and 


THE  UNITED   STATES  389 

field  schools,  sentiment  in  favor  of  state  funds  for  the 
support  of  common  schools  was  rapidly  taking  shape 
in  the  public  mind,  and,  by  the  time  Virginia  was  half 
a  century  old  as  a  State,  she  was  almost  ready  to  ac- 
cept the  system  completely. 

Other  Southern  States. — In  the  formation  of  state 
constitutions  North  CaroHna  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  of  the  Southern  colonies  to  include  a  provision 
looking  toward  the  establishment  of  common  schools. 
The  constitution  was  drawn  up  in  1776,  and  in  181 7 
Judge  Archibald  Murphy,  by  request  of  the  legislature, 
submitted  an  elaborate  and  highly  creditable  plan  for 
public  schools.  According  to  this  plan  the  children 
of  the  poor  were  not  only  to  be  educated  but  also 
maintained.  This  "maintenance"  provision  defeated 
the  bill,  but  in  1825  it  resulted  in  the  legislative  estab- 
lishment of  a  literary  or  school  fund,  the  income  of 
which  was  to  be  used  for  the  support  of  public  schools. 
Early  in  her  statehood  Georgia,  by  providing  for  land 
endowments  for  schools,  looked  toward  the  ultimate 
establishment  of  a  state  system  to  be  known  as  the 
"University  of  Georgia."  The  creation  of  a  perma- 
nent school  fund  followed,  and  the  sentiment  in  favor 
of  public  education  continued  to  grow.  South  Carolina 
began  as  early  as  181 1  to  make  yearly  appropriations 
of  money  for  the  establishment  of  "free  schools" 
throughout  the  State,  the  number  in  each  legislative 
district  to  equal  those  of  its  representatives.  Un- 
fortunately, legislative  representation  was  based  on 
property  qualifications,  and  so  the  schools  came  to  be 
looked  upon  as  "pauper  schools."  Although  this  con- 
fusion injured  the  growth  of  sentiment  in  favor  of 
public  education,  it  could  not  prevent  the  steady  in- 


390  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

crease  of  appropriations  and  the  final  triumph  of  the 
cause.  In  1816  Maryland  followed  the  lead  of  Vir- 
ginia by  subsidizing  the  education  of  the  poor,  and  in 
1825  by  passing  a  law  permitting  counties  to  establish 
common  schools. 

The  transition  from  ecclesiastic  and  exclusive  to 
state-supported  and  universal  education  was  very 
much  the  same  in  all  the  Southern  commonwealths. 
In  all  of  them  there  was  some  sort  of  co-operation  be- 
tween statesmen  and  friends  of  education,  so  that  be- 
fore half  a  century  of  statehood  had  elapsed,  they  had 
begun  to  create  literary  funds,  subsidize  schooling  for 
the  poor,  pass  permissive  laws  for  establishing  public 
schools.  More  than  all  this,  Baltimore,  Charleston, 
Louisville,  Nashville,  Memphis,  Mobile,  New  Orleans, 
and  other  large  cities  had  actually  established  systems 
of  public  schools.  In  most  of  the  older  colonies  the 
classical  grammar-schools  of  the  aristocracy  had  largely 
given  way  to  the  more  democratic,  progressive,  and 
non-sectarian  academies,  and,  while  the  various  de- 
nominations continued  to  rely  on  their  own  higher  in- 
stitutions of  learning,  these  also  became  more  and  more 
progressive  in  function  and  curriculum.  A  number  of 
the  Southern  States  extended  their  support  of  public 
education  to  higher  institutions. 

Middle  States. — In  the  Middle  States  the  conflict 
between  private  interests  and  sectarianism,  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  champions  in  favor  of  public  education, 
on  the  other,  was  often  extremely  bitter. 

New  York. — The  excellent  parochial  system  of  the 
Dutch  Reformed  lost  its  efficiency  when  on  their 
arrival  in  1674  the  English  refused  to  continue  the 
policy  of  public  stipends.     It  became  customary  for 


THE  UNITED  STATES  391 

the  better  classes,  as  before  stated,  to  depend  upon  the 
clergy  or  tutors  for  the  education  of  their  children,  or, 
if  they  could  afford  it,  to  send  them  to  Europe.  During 
the  century,  however,  that  thus  intervened  between 
the  coming  of  the  English  and  the  Revolution,  a  number 
of  secondary  schools,  partly  supported  by  gratuities 
from  the  State,  were  organized,  and  in  1754  King's 
College,  now  Columbia,  was  founded.  As  for  ele- 
mentary schools,  the  few  that  existed  were  either  rem- 
nants of  the  parish  system,  or  private  ventures,  or 
the  creation  of  philanthropic  societies. 

The  Revolution  taught  the  various  elements  of  the 
population  the  valuable  lesson  of  a  common  cause, 
so  that  "sentiment  in  favor  of  public  education  began 
to  prevail  over  vested  interests  and  sectarian  jealousies." 
One  governor  after  another  called  upon  the  legisla- 
ture to  establish  common  schools.  The  first  legislative 
attempt  to  organize  a  system  of  public  education  was 
made  in  1787,  but  it  did  not  include  elementary  schools. 
In  1789  land  was  set  apart  in  each  township  for  com- 
mon schools,  and  in  1795  grants  were  arranged  for 
towns.  In  1805  incomes  from  land  were  set  apart  as 
a  school  fund,  which  was  to  be  used  when  the  yearly 
income  was  sufficient. 

In  181 2  it  was  arranged  to  put  the  common  schools 
under  the  control  of  a  state  superintendent,  after 
which  rapid  improvement  in  the  raising  of  taxes  and 
the  administration  of  schools  followed.  Unfortunately, 
the  academies  remained  under  the  control  of  a  Board 
of  Regents,  and  the  State,  instead  of  establishing 
normal  schools,  looked  to  the  academies  (private  sec- 
ondary institutions)  for  the  professional  training  of 
teachers.     In  short,  although  the  State  of  New  York 


392  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

started  the  first  state  system  of  public  education,  it 
was  only  after  great  delay  that  she  became  able  to 
co-ordinate  all  elements  into  a  completely  free  and 
consistent  system,  while  in  the  meantime  her  great 
cities  had  troubles  of  their  own. 

New  York  City. — State  funds  were  granted  not  only 
to  academies  but  also  to  societies  organized  to  pro- 
mote elementary  education.  The  city  of  New  York 
furnishes  the  most  celebrated  case.  Here,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century,  there  were  thou- 
sands of  children  for  whom  the  church  and  the  private 
schools  could  not  provide  adequate  facilities.  In  1805 
a  body  of  philanthropists,  headed  by  DeWitt  Clinton, 
organized  the  "Free  School  Society  of  New  York  City," 
to  provide  adequate  additional  elementary  school  facili- 
ties for  the  children  in  question.  The  State  promptly 
came  to  the  assistance  of  the  society,  adding  public 
grants  to  city  grants.  In  1826  a  new  charter  was 
obtained  from  the  State,  changing  the  name  to  "Public 
School  Society  of  New  York"  and  granting  permission 
to  charge  a  fee  for  children  whose  parents  could  afiford 
it.  Parents  who  felt  that  they  "were  too  poor  to  pay 
and  too  proud  to  confess  their  poverty"  now  no  longer 
sent  their  children  to  school,  thus  causing  such  a  fall 
in  the  attendance  that  the  fee  was  abolished  after  a 
few  years  of  trial.  Then  the  society  prospered  and  was 
rapidly  gaining  control  of  elementary  education.  In 
1842,  however,  after  the  city  council  had  refused  sev- 
eral church  schools  a  share  in  the  pubHc  funds,  the 
Catholics,  "on  the  ground  that  the  non-sectarian  in- 
struction given  in  the  schools  of  the  society  was  really 
Protestant,"  took  the  fight  to  the  State  legislature. 
The  trouble  was  settled  the  same  year  by  the  legislative 


THE  UNITED   STATES  393 

establishment  of  a  board  of  education  for  New  York 
City,  to  be  elected  by  the  people.  The  board  was  to 
control  the  use  of  the  school  funds,  and  no  portion  of 
such  funds  was  to  go  to  any  school  not  under  the 
management  of  the  board.  Buffalo,  Utica,  Oswego,  and 
several  other  cities  had  similar  experiences. 

Pennsylvania.  —  In  Pennsylvania  state-supported 
''poor  schools"  gave  place  to  state-maintained  common 
schools  only  after  prolonged  and  bitter  agitation. 
The  framers  of  the  new  constitution  (1790)  wrestled 
with  the  problem  of  pubUc  education;  but,  in  spite  of 
the  support  of  the  cause  by  influential  men  like  Frank- 
lin and  Benjamin  Rush,  the  legislature  permitted  only 
Timothy  Pickering's  celebrated  "gratis"  clause  to 
stand.  This  compromise  clause  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  schools  throughout  the  State  "in  such 
a  manner  that  the  poor  may  be  taught  gratis  J'  Even 
at  that  it  was  not  until  1802,  1804,  and  1809  that  the 
legislature  passed  acts  to  make  this  permissive  law 
effective,  and  then,  disappointing  as  it  was  to  the  friends 
of  popular  education,  it  was  arranged  that,  instead  of 
establishing  new  institutions,  the  State  should  subsi- 
dize private,  church,  and  neighborhood  schools,  thus 
incurring  less  expense.  To  this  end  the  income  of 
sixty  thousand  acres  of  land  appropriated  for  "aiding 
public  schools"  was  now  applied. 

The  friends  of  public  education  would  not  let  the 
matter  rest.  Governors  and  other  prominent  men  took 
it  upon  themselves  in  season  and  out  of  season  to  plead 
the  cause  of  free  common  schools.  That  the  new  idea 
would  prevail  in  the  end  became  evident  enough  in 
18 18,  when  Philadelphia,  under  special  act  of  the  legis- 
lature, became  "the  first  school  district  of  Pennsyl- 


394  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

vania,  with  power  to  establish  Joseph  Lancaster's 
monitorial  system  at  public  expense."  The  system  was 
put  into  operation  by  the  famous  Englishman  himself, 
and  the  experiment  attracted  much  attention.  Sev- 
eral years  later  the  special  legislation  was  extended  to 
five  more  districts,  and  in  1824  the  State  passed  a  law 
permitting  any  community  to  estabhsh  free  schools. 
This  law  was  repealed,  however,  before  it  could  go 
into  effect. 

In  the  meantime  "The  Pennsylvania  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Common  Schools"  had  been  formed. 
This  society  demonstrated  in  a  series  of  memorials  ad- 
dressed to  the  legislature  that  the  "pauper  school  law" 
then  in  force  was  a  bad  piece  of  business,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  1828  in  securing  the  establishment  of  a  state 
fund  for  state  schools.  Finally,  in  1834,  under  Gov- 
ernor Wolf,  they  succeeded,  after  a  vigorous  educational 
campaign,  in  securing  the  passage  of  the  free-school 
bill  drawn  up  by  Senator  Breck.  This  "act  to  estab- 
lish a  general  system  of  education  by  common  schools" 
was  to  be  put  into  operation  through  the  general 
superintendency  of  the  secretary  of  state,  and  seventy- 
five  thousand  dollars  was  to  be  appropriated  annually 
from  the  state  fund  for  the  purpose.  The  city  wards, 
boroughs,  and  districts  which  were  erected  as  school 
districts  were  to  share  in  these  appropriations  provided 
they  levied  local  taxes  for  schools.  The  enactment 
of  this  law  pleased  the  northern  counties,  settled 
chiefly  by  New  Englanders,  and  the  western  counties, 
where  the  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterians  constituted  a 
large  proportion  of  the  population,  but  it  met  with 
bitter  opposition  in  eastern  ("old")  Pennsylvania, 
where  the  Quakers  and  Germans  looked  upon  the  new 


THE  UNITED  STATES  395 

movement  as  the  death-blow  to  their  own  parish 
schools.  The  new  law  was  also  opposed  by  the  people 
who  could  not  see  why  they  should  help  to  pay  for  the 
education  of  "other  people's  children."  The  oppo- 
nents of  the  law  hoped  to  win  votes  enough  in  the  next 
legislature  to  repeal  the  law.  This  campaign  of  preju- 
dice and  selfishness  might  have  succeeded  had  not 
Thaddeus  Stevens,  afterward  known  as  the  "Great 
Commoner,"  stepped  into  the  breach  with  matchless 
eloquence  in  the  nick  of  time,  April  ii,  1835.  The 
weak  features  of  the  law  were  corrected,  a  larger  an- 
nual appropriation  guaranteed,  and  the  system  put 
into  operation  by  Thomas  Burro wes,  secretary  of  state 
under  Governor  Ritner.  Although  in  the  meantime 
the  cause  of  public  education  had  gained  many  friends, 
only  half  of  the  school  districts  promptly  availed  them- 
selves of  their  rights,  and  it  was  not  until  years  later 
that  this  permissive  law  was  finally  accepted  by  all  the 
school  districts. 

The  cause  of  common  schools  suffered  from  similar 
hindrances  in  the  sister  States  of  New  Jersey  and  Dela- 
ware, where  school  funds  were  created  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  poor,  but  through  the  agencies  of  existing 
church  and  private  schools.  Here,  too,  permissive  laws 
were  parsed,  but  accepted  only  after  much  opposition 
and  serious  delay. 

New  England  States. — The  district  schools,  or 
"divided"  schools,  to  which,  as  before  noticed,  the 
New  England  "town  schools"  so  largely  gave  place 
before  the  Revolution,  presently  furnished  the  motive 
for  the  transition  to  state  systems  of  public  schools. 

Massachusetts. — The  divided  town  system  had  come 
into  existence  as  a  convenience  under  local  necessity, 


i^OG  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

but  in  1789  the  custom  became  law.  Further  legal 
sanctions  permitted  the  districts  to  levy  taxes  and  hold 
property.  In  1827  they  were  granted  the  right  to 
choose  a  committeeman,  whose  function  it  was  to  be 
to  appoint  the  teacher  and  control  the  school  property. 
In  course  of  time  the  choice  of  the  committeeman,  the 
site,  and  the  teacher  became  a  matter  of  petty  jealousies, 
which  frequently  resulted  in  low  tax  rates,  short  terms, 
and  wretched  work. 

As  the  expense  of  maintaining  divided  schools  in- 
creased, the  old-time  grammar-school,  for  which  a 
hundred  householders  were  to  provide,  became  im- 
possible except  in  the  larger  towns,  and  fell  out  of  use 
before  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Under 
these  conditions  "academies"  (private  secondary 
schools),  progressive  in  spirit,  were  founded  for  those 
who  could  afford  such  opportunities,  and  in  1797  the 
custom  was  legalized.  At  the  time  when  the  state 
system  of  schools  came  into  existence,  almost  half  a 
century  later,  no  less  than  fifty  academies  had  become 
the  financial  proteges  of  Massachusetts  alone. 

In  the  meantime  the  glaring  inefficiency  of  the  dis- 
trict system  became  more  and  more  evident  to  thought- 
ful men,  and  vigorous  campaigns  for  the  betterment  of 
the  situation  were  carried  on  in  the  press  and  from  the 
platform. 

Probably  the  man  to  whom  Massachusetts  owes  the 
inauguration  of  the  state  system  was  John  G.  Carter, 
a  member  of  the  State  legislature.  It  was  through  his 
influence  that  a  number  of  laws  were  passed  which 
paved  the  way  for  the  final  act.  "In  1826  every  town 
was  required  to  choose  a  school  committee  to  super- 
vise the  schools  of  the  town,  select  text-books,  and  cer- 


THE  UNITED  STATES  397 

tify  teachers,  though  the  district  committeeman  could 
still  appoint  the  teacher.  In  1834  a  state  school  fund 
was  established,  in  which  a  town  could  share  on  con- 
dition that  it  raise  by  tax  a  dollar  for  each  child  of 
school  age.  Carter's  efforts  culminated  in  1837  in  the 
passage  of  a  bill  for  the  establishment  of  a  state  board 
of  education  to  consist  of  eight  members.  It  was  to 
have  no  executive  powers,  but  was  to  collect  informa- 
tion upon  school  affairs  and  recommend  changes  to 
the  legislature.  Horace  Mann  was  elected  its  first 
secretary,  and  with  his  name  is  associated  the  reform 
of  the  district  school." 

Other  New  England  States. — The  course  of  events 
leading  up  to  a  state  system  of  common  schools  was 
very  much  the  same  in  all  the  New  England  States, 
except  Rhode  Island.  In  Rhode  Island  the  "volun- 
tary organization  of  education  continued  throughout 
the  eighteenth  century."  A  law  was  passed  in  1800 
permitting  each  town  to  maintain  "one  or  more  free 
schools,"  but  only  Providence  availed  itself  of  the  per- 
mission. It  was  not  until  1828  that  a  state  system 
supported  by  local  taxes  was  finally  inaugurated. 

Westward.— Immigration  from  the  older  common- 
wealths followed  parallels  of  latitude.  The  northern 
parts  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  were  thus  occupied 
mostly  by  people  from  New  England  and  New  York, 
and  the  southern  parts  by  immigrants  from  Virginia, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Louisiana,  and  other  States  in 
which  public  education  had  not  yet  become  fully  or- 
ganized. Michigan,  however,  was  settled  almost 
wholly  by  immigrants  from  New  England,  New  York, 
and  northern  OJiio. 

These   migration   facts   determined    the    course    of 


398  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

events  in  the  development  of  education.  Michigan, 
whose  settlers  had  come  from  States  in  which  public 
education  was  already  in  vogue,  was  the  only  one  of 
the  four  in  question  to  escape  from  prolonged  conflict 
of  ideals.  The  federal  "  Ordinance  of  1 787,"  organizing 
the  "Northwest  Territory,"  to  which  all  these  States 
belonged,  had  provided  a  firm  foundation  for  pubHc 
education,  but  the  difficulties  of  conquering  the  virgin 
wilderness  and  building  new  homes,  the  problems  of 
transportation,  and  the  presence  of  petty  political  and 
sectarian  jealousies,  seriously  delayed  the  development 
of  state  systems.  In  due  time,  however,  the  provisions 
of  this  ordinance  became  the  general  policy  not  only 
of  the  "Northwest"  but  also  in  the  States  carved  out 
of  the  "Louisiana  Purchase."  This  ordinance  divided 
the  territory  into  townships  six  miles  square,  and  sec- 
tion sixteen  of  the  thirty-six  sections  into  which  each 
township  was  divided  was  set  apart  for  the  support 
of  public  schools.  Later  two  or  three  townships  were 
set  apart  for  the  support  of  a  state  university.  Prob- 
lems of  state  and  local  supervision,  together  with  that 
of  local  taxation,  were  not  settled  in  most  of  the 
States  in  question  much  before  the  close  of  the  first 
third  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

'THE    GREAT   AWAKENING,   1837-1876 

It  was  a  great  step  forward  in  the  march  of  events 
when  the  various  States  of  the  American  Union  had 
committed  themselves  to  the  policy  of  public  education, 
as  most  of  those  in  existence  before  1837  had  done. 
Much,  however,  that  was  desirable  still  remained  not 
only  not  done  but  not  even  in  mind.     The  most  serious 


THE  UNITED  STATES  399 

thing  in  the  situation  was  the  lack  of  appreciation,  the 
stupid  apathy,  the  unpardonable  indifference  of  the 
general  public.  It  is  not  hard  to  account  for  this 
arrest  of  progress.  Vested  interests  whose  incomes 
would  be  cut  off  continued  to  press  their  claims  upon 
the  public;  the  common  people  for  whom  philan- 
thropic societies  had  provided  charity  schools  were 
afraid  of  local  taxation;  the  church  people  long  wedded 
to  the  parish  school  were  afraid  of  the  secular  schools; 
there  were  plenty  of  people  so  unpatriotic  in  their  self- 
ish possessions  that  they  still  resented  the  democratic 
responsibility  of  paying  taxes  for  the  education  of  the 
children  of  other  people.  It  would  take  time  to  over- 
come these  traditions,  and  still  more  time  to  come  to 
the  realization  that,  in  order  to  secure  actual  efficiency, 
*' permissive  laws"  must  give  way  to  mandatory  laws 
in  the  organization,  supervision,  and  control  of  schools. 
Men  of  vision  were  needed — vigorous  agitation  was 
imperative — wise  solutions  of  problems  were  essential. 
The  course  of  events  proves  that  all  of  these  were 
ready.  Although  others  had  paved  the  way  in  every 
section  of  our  country,  men  like  Horace  Mann  and 
Henry  Barnard  deserve  foremost  credit  for  the  great 
awakening. 

HORACE  MANN 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  John  G.  Carter,  through 
whose  legal  genius  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts 
organized  a  "board  of  education"  in  1837,  made  the 
educational  career  of  Horace  Mann  possible,  and  that 
Henry  Barnard,  through  his  Journal  oj  Education, 
interpreted  the  m.ovement  scientifically  and  gave  it 
national  impulse,  but  that  Mann  himself,  through  his 


y 


400  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

spiritual  vigor,  roused  the  general  public  of  America 
from  its  lethargy  into  its  first  genuine  appreciation  of 
state-supported,  state-controlled  common  schools. 

In  the  Making.— Horace  Mann  (i  796-1 859)  was 
born  of  humble  parentage  at  Franklin,  Mass.,  and 
brought  up  in  poverty  and  toil.  He  never  ceased  to 
regret  that  he  had  missed  a  happy  childhood.  Eager  as 
he  was  to  get  an  education,  he  was  obhged  to  acquire 
the  elements  in  a  wretched  district  school,  which  he 
could  attend  only  a  few  weeks  every  winter.  Pres- 
ently he  began  to  devour  the  histories  and  religious 
books  which  Benjamin  Franklin  had  donated  to  the 
town  library,  after  which,  fortunately,  he  acquired  a 
start  in  Latin  and  Greek  from  an  itinerant  school- 
teacher, and,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  entered  the  sopho- 
more class  of  Brown  University,  from  which  he  was 
graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class.  Later  he  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  twenty-seven. 
He  rose  rapidly  and  in  1823  was  elected  to  the  State 
legislature,  where  his  ability  attracted  much  attention. 
Accordingly,  in  1837,  when  the  legislature  through 
Carter's  inspiration  had  created  the  "Board  of  Educa- 
tion," and  was  therefore  regarded  as  the  logical  candi- 
date, Horace  Mann  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
board.  This  position  practically  made  him  superin- 
tendent of  schools.  It  was  to  be  his  function,  as  offi- 
cially defined,  "to  collect  information  of  the  actual 
condition  of  the  common  schools  and  other  means  of 
popular  education,  and  diffuse  as  widely  as  possible 
throughout  every  part  of  the  commonwealth  informa- 
tion of  the  most  approved  methods  of  arranging  the 
studies  and  conducting  the  education  of  the  young,  to 
the  end  that  all  children  in  this  commonwealth  who 


THE  UNITED  STATES  401 

depend  upon  the  common  schools  for  instruction  may 
have  the  best  education  which  these  schools  can  be 
made  to  impart."  He  accepted  the  appointment  not 
because  it  would  bring  him  financial  remuneration  or 
personal  glory  but  because  he  believed  it  to  be  a  great 
opportunity  to  serve  the  cause  of  humanity,  and  be- 
cause, as  he  afterward  himself  said,  he  looked  upon 
the  common  schools  "as  the  way  that  God  had  chosen 
for  the  reformation  of  the  world." 

Condition  of  the  District  Schools. — In  1837  the  dis- 
trict schools  of  Massachusetts  were  only  colorless  rem- 
nants of  the  vigorous  town  schools  to  which  the  colony 
had  originally  pledged  itself.  The  self-control  to  which 
the  districts  had  attained  was  often  vitiated  by  class 
spirit.  People  who  could  afford  it  patronized  private 
schools,  thus  relegating  the  district  schools  to  the 
unenviable  state  of  "pauper  schools."  The  school- 
houses  were  unsightly,  the  teachers  poorly  equipped, 
and  the  term  short.  This  wretched  condition  of  things 
stirred  Mann's  soul.  He  wished  "to  restore  the  good 
old  custom,"  as  his  wife,  a  most  faithful  biographer, 
tells  us,  "of  having  the  rich  and  the  poor  educated  to- 
gether; and  for  that  end  he  desired  to  make  the  public 
schools  as  good  as  schools  could  be  made,  so  that  the 
rich  and  the  poor  might  not  necessarily  be  coincident 
with  the  educated  and  the  ignorant." 

Methods  of  Reform. — Mann  recognized  the  difl&culty 
of  his  task.  He  saw  that  he  must  conciliate  men  of 
influence,  break  down  prejudice,  and  rouse  the  great 
body  of  the  commonwealth  out  of  its  apathy.  To  this 
end  he  gathered  up  all  his  resources  and  devoted  all 
his  energies.  Among  his  most  effective  methods  were 
the  lecture  tours  which  he  made  through  the  State, 


402  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

for  which  his  intellectual  brilliancy  and  his  eloquence 
specially  fitted  him;  the  Annual  Reports,  of  which  he 
issued  twelve,  and  in  which  he  discussed  all  the  phases 
of  education  with  most  illuminating  efficiency,  and 
which  were  widely  read  not  only  in  Massachusetts 
but  also  in  other  States;  and  a  Common  School  Journal, 
in  which  he  reported  actual  conditions  and  the  en- 
deavors which  the  Board  of  Education  was  putting 
forward  to  facilitate  reforms. 

Normal  Schools.- — Mann  was  profoundly  convinced 
/  that  among  the  most  important  agencies  in  his  proposed 
/  school  reforms  were  competent  teachers.  Accordingly, 
in  1839,  encouraged  by  the  private  gift  of  ten  thousand 
dollars,  to  which  the  legislature  added  a  like  amount, 
he  established  the  first  normal  school  in  America  at 
historic  Lexington.  This  was  followed  by  several 
similar  institutions,  all  conducted  with  much  efficiency, 
in  different  parts  of  the  State.  The  one  founded  at 
Bridgewater  was  dedicated  in  1846.  In  his  address 
Mann  said  what  every  friend  of  normal  schools  may 
well  ponder:/*'!  believe  normal  schools  to  be  a  new  in- 
strumentality in  the  advancement  of  the  race.  I  be- 
lieve that,  without  them,  free  schools  themselves  would 
be  shorn  of  their  strength  and  their  healing  power, 
and  would  at  length  become  charity  schools,  and  thus 
die  out  in  fact  and  in  form.  Neither  the  art  of  print- 
ing, nor  the  trial  by  jury,  nor  a  free  press,  nor  free 
suffrage  can  long  exist  to  any  beneficial  and  salutary 
purpose  without  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers; 
for  if  the  character  and  the  qualifications  of  teachers 
be  allowed  to  degenerate,  the  free  schools  will  become 
pauper  schools,  and  the  pauper  schools  will  produce 
pauper  souls,  and  the  free  press  will  become  a  false  and 


THE  UNITED  STATES  403 

licentious  press,  and  ignorant  voters  will  become  venal 
voters,  and  through  the  medium  and  guise  of  republican 
forms  an  oligarchy  of  profligate  and  flagitious  men  will 
govern  the  land;  nay,  the  universal  diffusion  and  ul- 
timate triumph  of  all-glorious  Christianity  itself  must 
await  the  time  when  knowledge  shall  be  diffused  among 
men  through  the  instrumentahty  of  good  schools.'^/ 

Controversies. — The  ardor  with  which  Mann  con- 
tended for  common  schools,  from  which  all  sectional 
and  sectarian  spirit  should  be  abolished,  exposed  him 
to  the  charge  on  the  part  of  ecclesiastical  bodies  that 
to  his  influence  as  a  schoolman  was  due  to  a  large  ex- 
tent the  low  esteem  in  which  faith  and  religion  were 
held  at  the  time.  These  animosities  were  carried  into 
the  legislature,  where  early  in  his  work  determined 
efforts  were  made  to  block  his  career  by  abolishing  the 
Board  of  Education.  In  these  efforts  his  enemies 
failed  ignominiously. 

The  most  famous  controversy  in  which  Mann  be- 
came involved  through  his  uncompromising  attitude 
toward  all  forms  of  educational  inefficiency  was  the 
prolonged  one  with  the  "masters"  of  the  Boston 
"grammar-schools."  It  came  about  in  the  following 
manner.  On  a  trip  to  Europe  in  1843  he  had  devoted 
some  six  weeks  to  the  inspection  of  schools,  often 
spending  whole  days  in  one  school.  He  was  so  pleased 
with  the  Pestalozzian  spirit  and  methods  of  the  schools 
that,  on  his  return,  he  reviewed  his  experiences  at 
length  in  his  seventh  Annual  Report.  Among  other 
things  he  had  noticed  especially  that  the  teachers  in- 
variably taught  without  a  book  in  their  hand,  except 
in  reading  or  spelling;  that  they  always  stood  rather 
than  sat  when  teaching  a^  class;    and  that  the  pupils 


404  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

were  neither  punished  nor  in  fear  of  punishment. 
Mann  had  not  made  any  direct  accusations,  but  the 
Boston  masters,  whom  the  shoe  fitted  exactly,  took  up 
the  cudgel  against  him  in  a  most  vituperative  pamph- 
let. The  controversy  which  thus  began  prolonged 
itself  for  several  years,  when,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
the  Boston  schools  were  subjected  to  thorough  inspec- 
tion, all  incompetent  masters  dismissed,  and  a  more 
humane  discipline  inaugurated,  thus  not  only  vindi- 
cating but  also  strengthening  the  indomitable  secretary. 

Estimate. — In  his  eleventh  Annual  Report  Secretary 
Mann  was  able  to  call  attention  to  a  number  of  grati- 
fying results.  The  rural  schools  had  been  greatly  im- 
proved; the  towns  and  cities  had  introduced  the  graded 
system;  the  school  terms  had  been  lengthened;  the 
attendance  had  been  greatly  improved;  increased 
state  appropriations  had  been  granted;  three  normal 
schools  had  been  established,  and  the  teachers  had 
become  more  efficient. 

He  might  have  said  much  more,  for  he  had  prac- 
tically recreated  the  schools  of  his  State,  giving  them 
a  spirit  of  democracy  that  was  far  more  Kberal  than 
anything  to  which  America  had  as  yet  aspired,  and 
the  cause  of  education  in  general  a  spiritual  impulse 
that  was  presently  to  be  felt  throughout  our  land. 

At  length,  however,  the  strain  of  his  position,  in- 
tensified by  the  controversies  in  which,  as  a  true  re- 
former, he  was  compelled  to  involve  himself,  began  to 
tell  upon  the  secretary,  and  he  resigned  from  office  in 
1849.  He  filled  the  unexpired  term  of  John  Quincy 
Adams  in  Congress,  and  was  nominated  for  governor 
in  1852,  but  accepted  the  presidency  of  Antioch  Col- 
lege,  Ohio,   and,   after  giving  a  splendid  account  of 


THE  UNITED  STATES  405 

himself,  died  there  in  1859.  The  closing  words  of  his 
last  baccalaureate  sermon  at  Antioch  embodied  the 
spirit  which  animated  his  whole  career.  "I  beseech 
you,"  said  he,  "to  treasure  up  in  your  hearts  these  my 
parting  words:  Be  ashamed  to  die  until  you  have  won 
some  victory  for  humanity." 

HENRY   BARNARD 

'The  literary  and  philosophic  exponent  of  the  "great 
awakening"  was  Henry  Barnard  (1811-1900). 

In  the  Making.-^Henry  Barnard  canie  of  a  cultured 
Connecticut  family.  He  was  born  at  Hartford,  and, 
after  an  excellent  preparatory  training,  entered  Yale 
College,  where  his  brilliancy  attracted  much  atten- 
tion. After  his  graduation  in  1830,  he  began  the  study 
of  law,  but,  on  the  advice  of  President  Day  of  Yale, 
took  charge  of  an  academy  at  Wellsboro,  Pa.,  for  a 
year.  In  1835  he  went  to  Europe  to  make  a  special 
study  of  social  and  educational  conditions.  He  was 
much  impressed  by  the  work  of  Fellenberg  at  Hofwyl, 
and  even  more  by  the  labors  of  some  of  Pestalozzi's 
other  disciples  both  in  Switzerland  and  Germany. 

Official  Services. — Among  many  other  gifts,  Bar- 
nard had  the  genius  of  organization.  On  his  return 
from  Europe  in  1837,  he  was  elected  to  the  Connecticut 
legislature.  This  body,  accepting  the  measure  which 
he  formulated,  created  a  board  of  education,  and  in- 
duced him  to  take  the  office  of  secretary.  The  reforms 
which  he  instituted  during  the  four  years  of  his  in- 
cumbency closely  resembled  those  of  Horace  Mann. 
In  the  same  year  in  which  Mann  established  the  first 
American   normal   school,  Barnard  founded  the  first 


406  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

teachers'  institute.  Soon  afterward,  like  Mann,  he 
founded  a  School  Journal.  Through  his  inspiration  the 
legislature  undertook  a  general  and  salutary  revision 
and  codification  of  school  laws.  The  "school  societies," 
or  local  district  independencies  which  he  disturbed 
through  his  revision,  resented  the  invasion  of  their 
cherished  rights,  and  he  lost  his  office. 

In  1843  the  government  of  Rhode  Island  persuaded 
Barnard  to  become  the  first  commissioner  of  common 
schools  for  that  State.  He  now  duplicated  the  work 
which  he  had  undertaken  for  Connecticut,  but  with 
much  less  opposition,  and  when,  six  years  later,  on 
account  of  faihng  health,  he  had  to  relinquish  this 
ofl5ce,  "the  State  no  longer  regarded  wilfulness  and 
personal  opinion  as  praiseworthy  independence,  and 
he  could  honestly  claim  that  Rhode  Island  had  one 
of  the  best  school  systems  in  the  United  States." 

In  1 85 1  Connecticut  recalled  Barnard,  making  him 
superintendent  of  schools  and  principal  of  the  state 
normal  district  at  New  Britain,  which  had  been  estab- 
lished through  the  efforts  of  his  admirers.  The  great 
body  of  trained  teachers  which  he  now  sent  forth 
quickened  education  in  every  part.  He  consolidated 
and  simplified  the  organization  and  administration  of 
pubHc  education  more  completely,  virtually  giving  the 
system  its  present  consistency. 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education. — For  many  years 
Barnard  had  agitated  the  importance  of  "a  federal 
agency  for  the  collection  and  publication  of  trust- 
worthy information  and  statistics"  in  education.  It 
was  due  largely  to  his  efforts  that  the  national  govern- 
ment, in  1867,  established  the  Bureau  of  Education  at 
Washington.     He  became  its  first  commissioner,  and 


THE  UNITED  STATES  407 

organized  the  policy  which  his  distinguished  successors 
have  so  effectively  carried  out. 

Literary  Services.-^ What  America,  in  her  "great 
awakening,"  needed  even  more  than  organizing  genius 
was  a  systematic  exposition  of  the  principles  and 
methods  to  which  such  educational  reformers  as  Co- 
menius,  Rousseau,  Pestalozzi,  and  Froebel  had  com- 
mitted the  educational  practices  of  Europe.  Henry 
Barnard  proved  to  be  the  man  of  the  hour.  As  early 
as  his  second  official  connection  with  Connecticut,  he 
had  conceived  the  idea  of  an  American  Journal  of 
Education.  He  first  broached  the  subject  in  1854  at 
a  meeting  in  Washington  of  the  *' American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Education."  The  idea  was 
applauded,  but  financial  support  seemed  impossible. 
Presently  Barnard  undertook  the  task  himself,  devoting 
his  own  fortune  and  a  great  part  of  his  life  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  journal.  It  grew  into  thirty-one  octavo 
volumes,  which  constitute  a  monumental  cyclopaedia 
of  education.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  think  of  any 
important  phase  of  education — its  nature,  history,  and 
agencies — that  has  not  received  expert  attention  in 
his  journal.  Among  the  many  special  treatises  which, 
apart  from  the  journal,  Barnard  produced  in  his  busy 
career  are  his  works  on  "Pestalozzi  and  Pestalozzian- 
ism,"  "Kindergarten  and  Child  Culture,"  "German 
Schools  and  German  Teachers,"  "American  Pedagogy," 
"English  Pedagogy,"  "National  Education  in  Europe," 
"Normal  Schools." 

Estimate. --It  would  be  difficult  to  find  Barnard's 
peer  as  a  source  of  information  in  the  study  of  edu- 
cational reforms  and  reformers,  and  the  systems  arising 
from  these  both  in  Europe  and  America.     More  than 


408  HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION 

that,  "practically  every  reform  introduced  into  Ameri- 
can education  down  to  1880  owes  much  of  its  success 
to  Barnard's  support." 


RESULTS   OF   THE   GREAT  AWAKENING 

Inasmuch  as  the  apathy  from  which  the  general 
public  had  been  awakened  was  originally  different  in 
its  causes,  the  awakening  itself  was  correspondingly 
alike  or  different  as  the  case  might  be. 

New  England  States. — In  the  New  England  States, 
where  the  town  system  had  become  a  system  of  petty 
school  societies,  or  local  district  independencies,  it  was 
necessary  for  the  champions  of  centralization  to  foster 
school  funds,  and,  by  means  of  wise  distribution, 
gradually  to  overcome  all  forms  of  opposition  to  local 
taxes.  In  the  solution  of  this  matter  the  successors  of 
Mann  and  Barnard  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
and  Rhode  Island  were  singularly  fortunate,  though 
in  a  few  instances  the  process  was  not  complete  before 
about  1880. 

Increased  state  aid  to  public  high  schools  gradually 
made  successful  competition  impossible  for  the  acad- 
emies and  forced  private  secondary  education  from 
the  field,  and  almost  all  the  large  cities  provided  for 
superintendents  of  schools. 

Under  the  impulse  of  central  supervision  and  State 
appropriations  the  various  localities  improved  their 
school  buildings,  equipments,  salaries  to  teachers, 
length  of  terms,  and  the  status  of  the  teachers. 

While  sparseness  of  population  and  poverty  of  re- 
sources delayed  progress  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Vermont,  the  course  of  events  led  to  the  same 
general  results. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  409 

In  the  Middle  States. — The  "great  awakening" 
was  not  confined  to  the  New  England  States. 

New  York. — In  the  State  of  New  York  centraliza- 
tion in  the  organization  and  control  of  education  was 
delayed  by  limiting  the  jurisdiction  of  the  "Board  of 
Regents,"  created  in  1784,  to  public  education  above 
the  elementary  schools,  thus  permitting  unfortunate 
independencies.  The  most  serious  delay  due  to  this 
limitation  was  the  power  which  the  "Public  School 
Society"  acquired  over  elementary  education  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  where  the  system  of  elementary 
public  schools  created  in  1842  was  compelled  to  com- 
pete with  the  schools  of  the  society  until  1853,  when 
it  finally  turned  over  its  funds  to  the  city  board  and 
went  out  of  existence. 

In  the  meantime  the  appointment  of  a  state  super- 
intendent, in  181 2,  was  a  great  step  forward  toward 
central  control,  and,  although  for  a  time,  from  1821 
until  1854,  this  office  was  combined  with  that  of  secre- 
tary of  state,  much  was  accompHshed  for  the  cause  of 
the  public  schools. 

The  academies  continued  to  receive  state  aid,  thus 
delaying  the  complete  organization  of  secondary  edu- 
cation, but  from  1844,  when  a  state  normal  school 
was  established,  the  academies  gradually  lost  their 
power.  Opposition  to  local  taxation  finally  also  gave 
way,  and  in  1867  the  State  aboHshed  tuition  fees,  thus 
making  elem.entary  education  entirely  free. 

Pennsylvania. — In  spite  of  all  that  progressive  gov- 
ernors and  statesmen  could  do,  selfish  and  sectarian 
prejudice  prevented  the  salutary  permissive  law  of 
1834  from  going  into  general  effect,  and  it  was  not 
until  1854  that  the  recalcitrant  school  districts — about 


410  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

two  hundred  of  them — were  finally  compelled  by  law 
to  establish  public  schools  according  to  the  new  pro- 
visions. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  this  long-delayed  result 
was  sure  to  follow,  for  the  cause  had  able  champions 
in  a  number  of  progressive  governors  and  other  states- 
men. The  State  was  particularly  fortunate  in  the 
selection  of  the  first  state  superintendent,  the  inimitable 
Thomas  H.  Burrowes.  He  was  a  born  organizer, 
gifted  with  rare  wisdom,  indomitable  courage,  and  fine 
tact.  It  was,  however,  not  until  1854  that  the  state 
educational  department  became  absolutely  indepen- 
dent under  the  care  of  a  superintendent.  This  "De- 
partment of  Public  Instruction"  centralizes  and  co- 
ordinates all  public  education  in  the  State,  and  the 
same  results  are  accomplished  for  separate  counties, 
cities,  and  districts  by  a  cohort  of  efficient  superin- 
tendents, principals,  and  inspectors. 

In  1857  provision  was  made  for  a  complete  system 
of  normal  schools.  They  were  to  be  established  at  first 
by  private  enterprise,  but  soon  obtained  state  aid, 
and  in  1877,  when  ten  of  them  were  in  operation,  this 
aid  had  become  very  considerable.  There  are  now 
thirteen,  and  most  of  them  have  been  taken  over  by 
the  State  completely. 

The  "New  Code"  of  191 1  provides  for  the  most 
complete  and  extensive  organization  of  public  educa- 
tion, and  includes  a  "State  Board"  intrusted  with 
large  powers. 

Secondary  schools,  connecting  with  the  university 
and  with  life,  have  become  absolutely  free  to  both 
sexes,  thus  gradually  driving  the  private  academies 
from  the  field. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  411 

New  Jersey. — The  "great  awakening"  came  rather 
late  to  New  Jersey.  There  was  a  state  fund  for 
"pauper  schools,"  but  not  for  public  schools  until 
1838.  It  was  not  until  1848  that  control  was  central- 
ized in  a  state  superintendent.  Since  then  great  prog- 
ress has  been  made,  so  that  to-day  the  State  is  justly 
proud  of  her  splendid  system. 

Delaware. — The  little  State  on  the  Delaware  has 
been  very  conservative,  and  failed  to  live  up  to  her 
early  "permissive  laws."  It  was  not  until  after  the 
Civil  War  that  superintendencies  were  established,  and 
then  the  question  remained  unsolved  until  191 2.  Since 
then  Delaware  has  made  much  progress  in  line  with 
her  sister  States. 

The  Northwest. — In  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  IlHnois, 
where,  as  we  have  seen,  the  founders  had  come  with 
their  diverse  and  conflicting  colonial  conceptions,  the 
compromising  process  usually  took  the  form  of  very 
active  campaigns.  Each  State  was  fortunate  in  the 
leaders  who  championed  the  cause  of  state-supported, 
state-controlled  education — Samuel  Galloway  in  Ohio, 
Caleb  Mills  in  Indiana,,  and  Ninian  W.  Edwards  in 
Illinois,  In  their  methods  of  campaign  these  men  re- 
mind us  strongly  of  Horace  Mann,  and,  as  in  his  case, 
they  won  in  spite  of  sectarian  and  vested  interests. 
At  first  only  permissive  laws  could  pass,  and  private 
schools  continued  to  share  in  public  funds.  Never- 
theless, these  defects  were  all  remedied  before  the  Civil 
War  broke  upon  the  country.  Michigan,  settled  chiefly 
by  New  Englanders,  escaped  these  delays,  and  made 
very  rapid  progress  from  the  very  year  when  the  con- 
stitution was  adopted,  namely,  1837,  providing  at  once 
for  permanent  school  funds,  local  taxation,  and  a  state 


412  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

university.  All  these  States  have  organized  complete 
systems  of  central  control,  state  normal  schools,  and 
state  universities. 

In  the  rest  of  the  Western  States  the  course  of  events 
was  much  the  same.  Each  State,  upon  admission 
to  the  Union,  "received  the  sixteenth  section  of 
school  land  and  two  townships  for  a  university,  and, 
in  the  States  admitted  since  1848,  the  endowment  of 
schools  has  been  increased  to  two  sections,"  while 
Texas,  an  independent  republic  from  1836  to  1845, 
"stipulated  before  becoming  a  State  that  it  should 
retain  sole  possession  of  its  public  lands,  and  has  set 
aside  for  education  nearly  two  and  a  half  millions  of 
acres."  In  other  words,  each  State  at  once  provided 
by  constitution  for  the  organization  of  a  state  school 
system,  including  university  privileges,  and  arranged 
for  their  financial  support.  Such  obstacles  as  sec- 
tarianism, vested  private  interests,  and  the  confusion 
of  public  education  with  pauper  education — things 
which  had  given  the  earlier  commonwealths  so  much 
trouble — seldom  seriously  delayed  or  injured  progress. 

The  Southern  States. — The  educational  awakening 
which  swept  over  the  North  and  West  found  the  South 
too  depressed  to  respond  at  once,  for  the  coming  con- 
flict disturbed  the  spiritual  atmosphere  long  before  it 
really  came,  and  when  it  did  come  it  paralyzed  the 
resources  of  the  fair  Southland  too  completely  to  make 
recovery  possible  at  once. 

In  some  States,  however,  there  was  noticeable  prog- 
ress almost  up  to  the  Civil  War.  Several  States  had 
provided  for  common  schools  by  permissive  laws,  and 
the  attendance  had  been  rapidly  growing.  Prominent 
men  were  beginning  to  take  special  interest  in  public 


THE  UNITED  STATES  413 

education,  and  several  conventions  called  for  the  pur- 
pose of  considering  the  establishment  of  state  systems 
had  convened.  As  the  war  approached,  all  else  became 
of  secondary  importance,  and  when  it  was  over  the 
South  and  her  resources  lay  crushed  to  the  earth. 

Hope  and  courage,  however,  soon  returned,  and, 
realizing  that  if  she  would  arise  from  her  fallen  estate 
and  attain  to  the  greatness  to  which  she  had  a  right 
to  aspire  she  must  educate  her  masses,  several  States — • 
Maryland,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and  West  Virginia — 
organized  school  systems  as  early  as  1865,  and  in  other 
States  efforts  were  made  to  build  up  systems  of  free 
education  even  in  the  harsh  and  unhappy  days  of  the 
reconstruction  (1867-1876). 

The  poverty  of  the  South  made  it  difficult  to  provide 
schools  for  two  million  children,  and  this  difficulty 
was  increased  by  the  moral  and  social  necessity  of 
establishing  separate  schools  for  the  whites  and  blacks. 
The  fear  that  a  "reconstruction  congress,"  with  mil- 
lennial ideals  of  universal  brotherhood,  might  try  to 
force  "mixed  schools"  upon  the  white  population 
gradually  disappeared.  One  great  help  to  the  South 
was  the  founding  in  1867  of  the  Peabody  Educational 
Fund  of  two  million  dollars,  to  be  used  to  stimulate 
local  efforts  in  education.  When  the  agencies  for  the 
distribution  of  these  funds  found  them  inadequate, 
they  appealed  to  Congress,  and  through  these  appeals 
more  than  ten  million  dollars  have  been  granted  to  the 
support  of  schools. 

Since  1890  the  "New  South"  has  made  great  prog- 
ress in  education.  Progressive  governors  are  taking  a 
hand  in  education.  The  politics  which  for  some  years 
crept  into  the  appointment  of  state  superintendents 


414  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

has  yielded  to  democratic  ideals.  The  teachers  are 
receiving  professional  training  of  a  high  order,  and  the 
outlook  is  most  promising. 


EXPANSION 

After  the  Civil  War  the  policy  of  public  education 
found  practically  no  opposition,  and  all  sections  of 
the  Union  strove  to  extend  the  inestimable  advantages 
of  state-supported  and  state-controlled  systems  to 
the  general  public.  In  this  vast  expansion  the  federal 
government  has  appropriated  millions  of  acres  of  land 
directly  to  the  States  for  the  support  of  elementary 
schools  and  for  the  special  support  of  higher  institu- 
tions offering  courses  in  agriculture  and  technical  edu- 
cation, including  state  universities.  The  States  them- 
selves have  appropriated  vast  sums  of  money  to  vari- 
ous geographical  districts  to  stimulate  local  efiFort. 
The  American  people  as  a  whole  have  become  convinced 
that  the  political,  social,  and  economic  destiny  of  our 
great  country  must  be  closely  bound  up  with  free,  uni- 
versal, and  compulsory  education. 

NATIONAL   SYSTEM 

As  might  have  been  expected,  the  spirit  of  democracy 
which  animated  the  founders  of  the  American  republic 
continued  to  animate  the  founders  of  the  separate 
States,  so  that  these  resemble  each  other  not  only  in 
their  general  structure  but  especially  also  in  the  edu- 
cational systems  for  which  their  constitutions  made 
provision.  Hence  it  has  come  to  pass  that  in  the  gen- 
eral process  of  expansion,  not  only  before  the  Civil 


THE  UNITED  STATES  415 

War  but  also  afterward,  the  state  systems  of  education, 
North,  South,  and  West,  have  continued  to  range 
themselves  more  and  more  completely  into  a  corporate, 
consistent  whole,  which,  with  pardonable  pride,  we 
may  well  call  our  national  system. 

This  result  has  been  greatly  promoted  by  the  crea- 
tion of  our  federal  Bureau  of  Education  in  1867 — 
thanks  to  the  genius  for  educational  statesmanship  of 
Henry  Barnard — for  although  the  expert  collation, 
digestion,  and  distribution  of  educational  information 
for  which  this  bureau  is  designed  is  not  in  any  sense 
mandatory,  it  has  the  effect  of  inspiring  and  co-ordi- 
nating educational  efforts  and  educational  experiments. 

The  state  control  of  schools  is  vested  in  a  state 
superintendent,  who,  though  not  officially  subject  to 
the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  is  nevertheless 
tacitly  subject  to  the  national  co-ordinating  policy. 
This  policy  is  further  supported  by  county  superin- 
tendents, city  superintendents,  and  district  superin- 
tendents— all  subordinate  to  each  other  in  descending 
series,  but  vested  locally  with  adequate  supervising 
power. 

It  is  to  be  ascribed  largely  to  this  animating  spirit  of 
co-ordination  that  all  state-supported  schools  have 
now  come  to  occupy  the  relation  of  rungs  in  a  ladder. 

Elementary  Schools. — While  many  localities,  es- 
pecially the  larger  cities,  have  incorporated  the  kinder- 
garten into  the  state  system,  most  States  require  the 
child  to  attend  from  the  age  of  six  or  seven  for  seven 
or  eight  years.  In  most  States  the  elementary  curric- 
ulum includes  nature,  agriculture,  handicrafts,  civics, 
morals,  singing,  and  physiology,  in  connection  with 
language,    drawing,    arithmetic,     and    history.     The 


416  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

States  now  furnish  free  text-books  and  other  school 
supplies,  the  school  term  ranges  from  seven  to  ten 
months  a  year,  minimum  salary  laws  and  often  insur- 
ance laws  protect  the  teacher,  normal  schools  supported 
and  controlled  by  the  States  equip  the  teacher  profes- 
sionally, while  institutes  partly  supported  by  the  States 
serve  as  a  stimulus  to  continued  improvement  through 
reading  circles,  libraries,  etc.  A  number  of  States  now 
provide  continuation  schools  for  those  who,  for  eco- 
nomic or  other  reasons,  are  obliged  to  leave  school  at 
the  age  limit. 

Secondary  Education. — Each  State  supports  free, 
though  not  compulsory,  secondary  schools,  open  to 
both  sexes,  sometimes  not  coeducational,  and  offer- 
ing courses  covering  from  two  to  four  years.  The 
curriculum  generally  includes  Latin,  one  or  more  living 
languages,  together  with  several  of  the  natural  sciences, 
usually  physics,  chemistry,  and  botany;  the  college 
entrance  requirements  in  English  literature,  including 
from  four  to  six  classics,  supported  by  rhetoric;  manual 
training  supported  by  drawing;  agriculture,  bookkeep- 
ing, history,  civics,  physiology,  morals,  singing,  and 
mathematics.  Electives  looking  toward  normal  school 
and  college  entrance  are  often  permissible.  The  States 
generally  look  to  the  normal  schools  and  colleges  for  the 
adequate  supply  of  expert  and  departmental  teachers. 
School  buildings  compl3dng  with  the  requirements  of 
modern  sanitary  and  artistic  school  architecture  are 
commonly  supplied  with  physical  and  chemical  labo- 
ratories, general  and  supplementary  libraries,  often 
with  auditoriums,  gymnasiums,  and  other  facilities. 
Spacious  playgrounds  are  often  found,  with  county 
"field  days"  as  powerful  stimuli.     Lecture  courses  and 


THE  UNITED  STATES  417 

community-centre  movements  are  becoming  more  and 
more  frequent  concomitants  of  these  state-supported 
secondary  schools. 

Higher  Education. — Every  State  supports  a  state 
college,  to  which,  under  prescribed  conditions,  both 
sexes  are  admitted  free.  Here  technical  courses  cover- 
ing a  wide  range  of  vocations,  such  as  agriculture,  en- 
gineering, commerce,  and  the  like,  are  offered,  in  con- 
nection with  minor  courses  in  literature,  history,  civics, 
etc.,  and  the  elective  system  prevails  to  a  large  degree. 
As  a  rule,  only  highly  trained  experts  are  placed  in 
charge  of  departments,  and  the  institutions  are  fully 
equipped  with  laboratories,  libraries,  lecture-rooms, 
farms,  etc.  Graduation  leading  to  degrees  is  generally 
safeguarded  by  stringent  examinations  conducted  by 
accredited  officials. 

In  addition  to  these  accredited  state  universities 
there  are  numerous  medical  colleges  and  law  schools 
under  the  partial  control  and  support  of  the  State,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  many  institutions  for  defectives. 
The  denominational  colleges  and  theological  seminaries 
of  the  United  States  are  not  under  the  immediate  con- 
trol of  the  States,  and  receive  no  financial  support, 
although  there  are  valuable  concessions.  In  the  older 
commonwealths  there  are  great  endowed  universities, 
some  of  them  offering  courses  that  would  require  a  life- 
time to  cover,  and  which  may  well  be  considered  the 
peers  of  the  great  universities  of  Europe. 

Estimate. — The  spirit  of  democracy  which  animates 
the  whole  American  system  Hfts  it  immeasurably  above 
the  autocracy  of  the  German  system,  and  that  without 
injury  to  the  ideal  of  co-ordination  and  efficiency,  if 
not  actually  to  the  advantage  of  both.     In  this  country 


418  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

secularization  has  not  humiliated  the  church  as  it  has 
in  France,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  church  has  not 
delayed  the  coming  of  state-supported  public  schools 
so  long  as  in  England.  We  look  with  justifiable  pride 
upon  a  system  that  does  not  fail  in  reverence  to  God 
while  it  accords  the  fullest  measure  of  freedom  to  the 
individual  without  injury  to  the  claims  of  the  social 
whole. 

REFERENCES 

1.  West's  "History  of  the  American  People." 

2.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

3.  Boone's  "Education  in  the  United  States." 

4.  Graves'  "History  of  Education  in  Modem  Times." 

5.  Barnard's  "American  Journal  of  Education." 

6.  Butler's  "Education  in  the  United  States." 

7.  Draper's  "American  Education." 

8.  Mrs.  Mary  T.  Mann's  "Horace  Mann." 

9.  Winship's  "Horace  Mann." 

10.  Dexter's  "History  of  Education  in  the  United  States." 

11.  Mann's  "Annual  Reports." 

12.  Annual  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Ed- 
ucation. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  reasons  for  the  stages  in  the  history  of  education  in 
the  United  States. 

2.  With  what  three  types  of  schools  did  the  colonial  history 
of  education  begin,  and  why? 

3.  Upon  what  educational  facilities  did  the  Southern  planter 
rely?  Account  for  any  additional  facilities.  Explain  the  atti- 
tude of  Sir  William  Berkeley. 

4.  Describe  pretty  fully  how  William  and  Mary  College  came 
into  existence.  Account  for  the  course  of  study,  and  explain 
the  admirable  service  of  this  institution. 

5.  What  was  the  origin  of  parish  schools  in  the  middle  col- 
onies? Examine  the  control,  maintenance,  and  curriculum  of 
these  parish  schools  in  colonial  New  York.  What  became  of 
them  after  1674? 

6.  Prove  that  public  rather  than  parish  schools  were  the  ideal 


THE  UNITED  STATES  419 

of  William  Penn.  What,  nevertheless,  became  the  policy  of  the 
settlers  of  Pennsylvania,  and  how  was  it  put  into  operation  by 
the  various  denominations?  Make  a  special  study  of  Christo- 
pher Dock's  schools. 

7.  What  kind  of  schools  was  substituted  for  parish  schools 
in  western  and  northern  Pennsylvania? 

8.  Explain  the  case  of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware. 

o.  Account  for  the  early  establishment  of  "town"  schools 
in  Massachusetts  and  New  England. 

10.  Explain  how  Harvard  College  came  into  existence.  Jus- 
tify the  entrance  requirements. 

11.  Examine  three  reasons  for  the  decline  of  the  town  schools 
in  New  England  after  1649,  1660,  and  1690.  Account  especially 
for  the  "moving"  schools  and  the  later  "district"  schools. 

12.  Why  was  the  cause  of  education  among  the  first  to  suflfer 
during  the  Revolutionary  War? 

13.  What  were  the  hopes  and  prayers  of  the  founders  of  our 
republic  in  matters  of  education,  and  what  obstacles  balked 
these  hopes? 

14.  Explain  the  details  of  the  education  bill  which  Jefferson 
fathered,  and  its  fate.  Why  did  the  creation  of  literary  (school) 
funds  for  the  education  of  the  poor  delay  the  establishment  of 
common  schools? 

15.  Account  for  the  passage  of  permissive  laws.  Were  they 
not  really  contributions  to  the  cause  of  education? 

16.  Distinguish  the  exclusive  grammar-schools  from  the  more 
progressive  academies  which  sprang  up  in  the  South. 

17.  How  did  secondary  schools  come  into  existence  in  New 
York?  How  did  the  Revolution  contribute  to  the  establish- 
ment of  common  schools  in  New  York  State? 

18.  What  was  unfortunate  in  the  otherwise  excellent  bill  of 
1812? 

iQ.  Account  for  the  origin  of  the  "Free  School  Society  of  New 
York  City."  Describe  the  phenomenal  prosperity  of  the  move- 
ment, and  explain  the  final  surrender  of  this  society  to  the  city 
Board  of  Education. 

20.  Account  for  the  "gratis"  clause  in  the  new  constitution 
of  Pennsylvania  (1790),  and  show  how  the  fulfilment  of  this  law 
retarded  the  coming  of  "free  schools." 

21.  Explain  the  important  permissive  laws  of  1818  and  1824. 


420  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

22.  What  was  the  free  school  bill  of  1834  in  Pennsylvania? 
In  which  sections  of  the  State  was  it  opposed?  Explain  in  full 
the  great  part  which  Tharldeus  Stevens  played  in  connection 
with  this  bill.     See  Wickersham's  account  of  him. 

23.  Explain  how  the  district  schools  of  New  England  grad- 
ually acquired  legal  sanction,  and  set  forth  the  details. 

24.  Account  for  the  gradual  substitution  of  private  secondary 
schools  for  the  original  New  England  grammar-schools. 

25.  Explain  the  highly  creditable  service  which  John  G.  Carter 
rendered  the  cause  of  education  in  Massachusetts. 

26.  Compare  Rhode  Island  with  other  New  England  States. 

27.  Outline  the  course  of  events  to  which  the  establishment  of 
schools  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Michigan  gave  rise. 
What  were  the  educational  provisions  of  the  celebrated  "Ordi- 
nance of  1787,"  and  why  were  they  so  important? 

28.  What  were  the  main  features  of  the  great  educational 
awakening  after  1837?  What  parts  did  Carter,  Mann,  and 
Barnard  play  in  this  "great  awakening"? 

29.  How  did  Horace  Mann  manage  to  secure  an  education, 
and  why  did  he  rather  than  Carter  become  the  secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Education  in  1837? 

30.  In  what  condition  were  the  schools  of  Massachusetts  in 
1837,  and  by  what  methods  did  Mann  seek  to  reform  them? 

31.  Explain  why  Mann  believed  in  normal  schools,  and  how 
he  succeeded  in  his  efforts  to  establish  several. 

32.  How  did  Mann  become  involved  in  two  bitter  contro- 
versies, and  what  were  the  results? 

33.  Explain  the  services  which  Mann  rendered  the  cause  of 
education  through  his  Annual  Reports. 

34.  Sum  up  the  achievements  of  Horace  Mann,  and  follow 
him  to  the  close  of  his  life. 

35.  What  can  you  find  in  the  making  of  Henry  Barnard  that 
would  prophesy  a  great  career? 

36.  Compare  the  career  of  Barnard  as  secretary  of  the  Con- 
necticut Board  of  Education  with  that  of  Horace  Mann. 

37.  Explain  his  great  success  in  Rhode  Island,  and  his  recall 
to  Connecticut,  together  with  his  splendid  services. 

38.  How  did  Barnard  become  the  first  United  States  com- 
missioner of  education,  and  what  impulse  did  he  give  this 
bureau  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES  421 

39.  What  services  did  Barnard  render  the  cause  of  education 
as  a  writer? 

40.  What  problems  were  finally  solved  in  the  New  England 
States  by  the  creation  and  distribution  of  state  school  funds? 

41.  How  was  centralization  in  the  organization  and  control 
of  schools  delayed  in  New  York,  and  how  was  it  gradually  com- 
pleted ? 

42.  How  did  the  academies  of  the  State  of  New  York  lose 
their  hold,  and  elementary  education  become  absolutely  free? 

43.  What  hindered  the  Pennsylvania  school  law  of  1834  from 
going  into  immediate  eifect,  and  how  was  the  matter  finally 
settled  ? 

44.  What  services  did  Thomas  H.  Burrowes  render  the  cause 
of  education?  How  is  public  education  in  Pennsylvania  now 
supervised?  Consult  references  on  the  history  of  Pennsylvania 
normal  schools,  and  examine  the  Code  of  191 1. 

45.  How  have  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  solved  some  of  the 
hard  problems  of  education? 

46.  What  were  the  problems  that  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois 
had  to  solve,  and  how  were  these  problems  solved?  Why  did 
Michigan  escape  many  of  these  troubles? 

47.  How  did  the  Western  States  upon  admission  to  the  Union 
solve  the  problems  of  state  schools,  their  maintenance,  and  regu- 
lations? 

48.  How  did  the  Southern  States  respond  to  the  great  awaken- 
ing before  the  Civil  War  and  afterward  ? 

49.  What  were  the  difficulties  of  the  "reconstruction"  period? 
What  was  the  Peabody  Fund?  Describe  the  educational  as- 
pects of  the  "New  South." 

50.  How  have  all  sections  of  the  Union  responded  to  the 
problems  of  state-supported  and  state-controlled  school  systems? 

51.  Why  is  it  correct  to  say  that  the  school  systems  of  the 
United  States  constitute  a  national  system? 

52.  How  may  the  education  of  the  American  child  begin? 
Who  attends  the  elementary  schools?  What  uniformity  in  the 
curriculum  is  wide-spread?  What  are  some  of  the  fortunate 
conditions  under  which  our  children  complete  the  elementary 
course?     Consult  references  regarding  our  continuation  schools. 

53.  Name  some  of  the  many  safeguards  thrown  about  the 
profession  of  teaching  in  the  United  States. 


422  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

54.  Explain  the  state  relations,  curriculum,  teaching  forces, 
and  physical  equipment  of  our  secondary  schools. 

55.  Explain  the  state  relations,  curriculum,  teaching  forces, 
and  physical  equipment  of  our  state  universities  and  other 
higher  educational  institutions.     Consult  references. 

56.  Compare  our  national  system  with  that  of  Germany, 
France,  and  England. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

TENDENCIES 

Educational  reforms,  like  other  solutions  of  problems 
in  the  course  of  history,  have  generally  given  rise  to 
new  problems.  Just  as  in  the  history  of  the  United 
States  the  one  "continued  problem"  has  been  conflict 
between  the  claims  of  the  States  as  individuals  and  the 
claims  of  the  federated  whole,  so  in  the  history  of  edu- 
cation the  one  continued  problem  has  been,  and  proba- 
bly will  continue  to  be,  such  an  adjustment  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  social  whole  to  each  other  as  shall  be 
progressively  best  for  both,  in  harmony  with  the  un- 
folding purposes  of  God.  We  have  thus  far  studied  a 
succession  of  reform  movements,  and  found  that  in 
m.ost  of  them  adjustment  of  claims  was  incomplete,  and 
that  where  the  adjustment  was  ideal  it  either  hardened 
into  lifeless  forms  which  called  for  new  reforms,  or  else 
succumbed  to  the  conflict  with  the  opposite.  And  yet 
we  think  that  in  the  long  run  and  on  the  whole  the 
sum.  total  of  these  reforms  has  been  a  constant  gain, 
and  that  in  the  reform  movements  of  the  present  age 
we  are  nearing  goals  set  for  us  in  the  divine  ideal. 
It  is  only  fitting  and  proper  that  the  closing  chapter  of 
this  volume  should  be  devoted  to  a  brief  survey  and 
estimate  of  the  tendencies  and  movements  that  promise 
a  more  glorious  future. 

The  Scientific  Tendency. — We  are  no  longer  satis- 
fied with  mere  traditions.  The  intellectual  world  is 
convinced  that  nature  will  give  up  her  secrets  to  any 

423 


424  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

one  who  is  willing  to  pay  the  price  of  intelligent  and 
patient  research.  The  laboratory  method  has  become 
the  familiar  and  powerful  instrument  of  research,  not 
only  in  the  study  of  physical  nature  but  also  in  the 
study  of  man  himself — his  origin,  being,  and  destiny. 
As  a  result  the  older  sciences  have  become  greatly  en- 
riched in  content,  and  new  sciences  have  come  into 
being,  and  both  have  become  integral  parts  of  the 
school  curriculum. 

Startling  scientific  discoveries  have  become  practical 
applications,  just  as  Locke  had  foreseen.  Many 
thoughtful  men,  among  them  the  scientists  themselves, 
and  of  course  those  who  believe  that  education  should 
amount  to  preparation  for  living  in  an  ever-changing 
and  progressive  environment,  hold  that  the  sciences, 
pure  and  applied,  deserve  a  high  place  in  all  the  schools 
from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  Thus,  for  practical  as 
well  as  pedagogical  reasons,  elementary  science  in  the 
form  of  "nature-study"  has  found  its  way  into  the 
elementary  schools;  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  and 
astronomy  in  the  secondary  schools  and  colleges,  and 
research  departments  with  powerful  laboratory  equip- 
ments have  become  the  mark  of  prestige  in  the  great 
universities.  Among  those  who  have  spoken  with 
authority  on  these  matters  we  must  honor  such  men 
as  Huxley,  Agassiz,  and  Spencer.  The  last-named 
thinker  deserves  special  treatment  in  this  connection. 

HERBERT   SPENCER 

In  Herbert  Spencer  (1820-1903)  the  scientific  gains 
of  past  centuries  became  eloquent,  and  demanded 
recognition. 


TENDENCIES  425 

In  the  Making. — Herbert  Spencer  was  born  at  Derby, 
England.  He  was  educated  by  his  father,  a  school- 
master at  Derby,  and  by  his  uncle,  the  Reverend 
Thomas  Spencer,  rector  of  Hinton.  The  education 
which  his  father,  a  non-conforming  Wesleyan,  gave 
him  during  his  childhood  and  early  youth  "tended  de- 
cidedly to  quicken  his  interest  in  the  study  of  nature, 
and  to  develop  his  powers  of  independent  thought  and 
of  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  things."  At  the  age  of 
seventeen,  instead  of  going  to  college,  he  began  to 
study  engineering,  in  which  occupation  he  spent  some 
years.  In  the  meantime  his  active  mind  turned  power- 
fully to  the  most  progressive  English  liberalism.  In 
that  year  when,  as  a  consequence  of  revolution,  France 
for  a  second  time  became  a  republic,  and  the  thrones 
of  Europe  trembled,  namely,  1848,  Spencer  was  resid- 
ing in  London,  where  he  had  moved,  so  it  would  ap- 
pear, in  1843,  i^  order  to  devote  himself  to  literature 
and  philosophy.  It  was  in  connection  with  these 
pursuits  that  he  became  a  contributor  to  the  West- 
minster and  Edinburgh  Reviews,  and  presently  a  writer 
of  philosophic  books  that  in  number  and  power  of  con- 
ception have  lately  commanded  much  attention. 

Books. — In  1855  he  finished  the  first  edition  of  his 
*' Principles  of  Psychology."  He  undertook  to  prove 
that  life  consists  of  "a  continuous  adjustment  of  inner 
relations  to  outer  relations,"  and  that  the  mental  capa- 
bihties  are  the  developed  result  of  such  adjustments. 
In  i860  he  published  the  little  book  "Education," 
which  entitles  him  to  a  place  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion, and  which  at  the  time  of  its  appearance  ran 
counter  to  almost  everything  in  the  established  system 
of  secondary  and  higher  education.  ..  The  book  consists 
of  four  chapters. 


426  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Ideas  on  Education. — The  first  chapter  of  this  brac- 
ing little  volume  is  an  essay  on  the  relative  value  of 
studies,  and  the  others  arc  devoted  respectively  to 
intellectual,  moral,  and  physical  education. 

Relative  Value  of  Studies. — Spencer  was  opposed  to 
the  traditional  course  of  study,  especially  to  the  great 
preponderance  of  the  classics  in  secondary  and  higher 
institutions  of  learning.  He  contended  that  the  only 
rational  way  of  determining  "what  knowledge  is  of 
most  worth"  in  a  curriculum  is  to  discover  of  what 
real  use  it  is  in  life.  Then  he  made  a  complete  survey 
of  life — complete  as  he  thought — and  summed  up  all 
the  various  activities  under  the  general  heads  of  self- 
preservation,  the  bringing  up  of  children,  social  rela- 
tions, citizenship,  morals,  and  leisure.  Suiting  the 
means  to  the  ends,  he  concluded  that  the  school  cur- 
riculum should  be  built  up  of  such  studies  as  physi- 
ology, mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  and 
social  science. 

"Thus,"  as  Spencer  puts  it  in  his  confident  way, 
"to  the  question  with  which  we  set  out.  What  knowl- 
edge is  of  most  worth?  the  uniform  reply  is — science. 
This  is  the  verdict  in  all  the  counts.  For  direct  self- 
preservation  or  the  maintenance  of  life  and  health,  the 
all-important  knowledge  is — science.  For  that  indirect 
self-preservation  which  we  call  gaining  a  livelihood,  the 
knowledge  of  greatest  value  is — science.  For  the  due 
discharge  of  parental  functions,  the  proper  guidance  is 
to  be  found  only  in — science.  For  that  interpretation 
of  national  life,  past  and  present,  without  which  the 
citizen  cannot  rightly  regulate  his  conduct,  the  indis- 
pensable key  is — science.  Alike  for  the  most  perfect 
production  and  highest  enjoyment  of  art  in  all  its  forms, 


TENDENCIES  427 

the  needful  preparation  is  still — science.  And  for  pur- 
poses of  discipline — intellectual,  moral,  religious — the 
most  efficient  study  is,  once  more — science." 

The  soul-shrivelling  worship  of  the  merely  useful  be- 
trays itself  especially  in  Spencer's  brutal  condemnation 
of  the  soul-life  of  the  race — its  finer  sympathies  and 
sensibilities — its  inner  visions  and  its  holy  aspirations. 
''However  fully  we  may  admit,"  he  says,  "that  ex- 
tensive acquaintance  with  modern  languages  is  a  valu- 
able accomplishment,  which  through  reading,  con- 
versation, and  travel  aids  in  giving  a  certain  finish, 
it  by  no  means  follows  that  this  result  is  rightly  pur- 
chased at  the  cost  of  that  vitally  important  knowledge 
sacrificed  to  it.  Supposing  it  true  that  classical  edu- 
cation conduces  to  elegance  and  correctness  of  style, 
it  cannot  be  said  that  elegance  and  correctness  of  style 
are  comparable  in  importance  to  familiarity  with  the 
principles  that  should  guide  the  rearing  of  children. 
Grant  that  the  taste  may  be  greatly  improved  by  read- 
ing all  the  poetry  in  extinct  languages,  yet  it  is  not  to 
be  inferred  that  such  improvement  of  taste  is  equivalent 
in  value  to  an  acquaintance  with  the  laws  of  health. 
Accomplishments,  the  fine  arts,  belles-lettres,  and  all 
those  things  which,  as  we  say,  constitute  the  efflor- 
escence of  civilization  should  be  wholly  subordinate  to 
that  knowledge  and  discipline  in  which  civilization 
rests.  As  they  occupy  the  leisure  part  of  life,  so  they 
should  occupy  the  leisure  part  of  education." 

As  a  reply  to  these  conclusions  of  Spencer  it  will 
probably  be  sufficient  to  call  the  reader's  attention  to 
the  fact  that  in  a  well-balanced  curriculum  the  things 
which  Spencer  compares  should  not,  and  really  can- 
not, exclude  each  other,  and  that  what  Spencer  chooses 


428  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

to  call  the  leisure  part  of  life  is  often  the  part  that 
makes  life  really  worth  living.  To  this  reflection  we 
ought  to  add  the  fact,  widely  recognized  among  those 
who  stop  long  enough  to  think  about  it,  that  an  edu- 
cation consisting  almost  wholly  of  scientific  pursuits, 
as  in  Spencer's  own  case,  and  as  Darwin  sadly  recog- 
nized in  himself,  cannot  satisfy  the  deepest  hungers  and 
thirsts  of  the  soul. 

Intellectual  Education. — In  his  second  chapter  Spen- 
cer, as  we  might  expect  from  his  interest  in  psychology, 
contends  for  scientific  pedagogy.  In  the  course  of  the 
chapter  he  devotes  himself  with  keen  insight  to  prin- 
ciples, most  of  which  indeed  have  become  familiar  to 
us  through  Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  and  other  illustrious 
educational  reformers. 

He  takes  up  the  following  principles  in  order:  (i)  In 
teaching  we  should  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex,  (2)  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract.  (3)  The 
genesis  of  knowledge  must  follow  the  same  course  as 
the  genesis  of  knowledge  in  the  race.  (4)  Adequate 
particulars  should  pave  the  way  for  generalization,  or 
theory  should  follow  practice.  (5)  Increase  of  mental 
power  comes  only  through  what  the  pupil  can  be  in- 
duced to  do  for  himself,  or  self-activity  is  the  basis  of 
education.  (6)  Pleasurable  excitement  on  the  part  of 
the  student  must  be  the  criterion  of  any  educational 
method.  We  do  violence  to  nature  when  we  try  to 
substitute  force  for  the  pupil's  own  initiative. 

The  third  and  the  last  of  these  principles  call  for 
comment. 

In  the  contention  that  the  genesis  of  knowledge  in 
the  individual  must  follow  the  same  course  as  the 
genesis  of  knowledge  in  the  race,  Spencer,  Hke  Ziller 


TENDENCIES  429 

and  Rein,  presses  Herbart's  principle  of  correlation  to 
extremes.  All  these  disciples  of  Herbart  assume  that 
the  biological  theory  of  recapitulation  holds  in  mental 
as  well  as  in  physical  development.  This  conclusion 
breaks  down  at  many  points  under  the  hammer  of 
overwhelming  proof.  It  is  the  glory  of  twentieth- 
century  educational  practice  to  save  the  individual 
from  the  despotic  recapitulation  which  this  theory  con- 
siders inevitable,  and  the  success  with  which  the  means 
to  this  end  have  been  employed,  namely,  the  substi- 
tution of  superior  environment  in  the  redemption  of 
the  individual,  has  proved  far  greater  than  that  of 
Ziller  and  Rein  in  their  efTort  to  build  up  a  recapitu- 
lating curriculum. 

Spencer  devotes  the  major  part  of  his  second  chap- 
ter to  proofs  confirming  Herbart's  celebrated  doctrine 
of  pleasurable  excitement  through  apperceptive  in- 
struction and  the  conclusion  that  the  self-activity  to 
which  such  pleasurable  excitement  provokes  the  mind 
is  the  surest  way  to  increase  of  mental  power.  In- 
asmuch as  apperceptive  instruction  makes  that  selec- 
tion of  materials  through  which  the  individual  may  be 
saved  from  despotic  recapitulation  of  race-develop- 
ment possible,  Spencer  apparently  breaks  the  force  of 
his  argument  in  favor  of  the  recapitulation  theory  by 
those  in  favor  of  apperceptive  correlation. 

Moral  Education. — Relying  as  wholly  on  his  induc- 
tive method  of  reaching  conclusions  in  the  moral  world 
as  he  does  in  the  world  of  pure  intellect,  Spencer,  as 
we  might  expect  from  his  less  emotional  temperament, 
rejects  the  extreme  individualism  of  Rousseau's  theory 
of  mo'-als.  Nevertheless,  ignoring  the  claims  of  Chris- 
tian ethics,  and  relying  solely  on  his  evolutionistic  psy- 


430  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

chology,  he  adopted  Rousseau's  theory  of  natural  con- 
sequences in  moral  discipline,  and  defends  it  with  a 
captivating  array  of  illustrative  proofs  that  seem  irre- 
sistible until  the  reader  matches  his  own  experience  and 
his  own  observations  against  Spencer's  illustrations, 
and  then  discovers  that  nature  is  often  too  severe  and 
still  more  often  too  slow  in  the  consequences  with  which 
she  punishes  infractions  of  her  laws.  While,  for  exam- 
ple, it  is  quite  true,  as  Spencer  points  out,  that  the 
child  who  "neglects  to  get  ready  in  time  for  a  walk," 
and  is  therefore  left  at  home,  learns  the  necessary  moral 
lesson  effectively  without  the  use  of  artificial  force, 
and  is  compelled  to  admit  the  justice  of  the  penalty, 
thus  remaining  on  terms  of  good-Avill  toward  those 
who  inflict  the  corrective,  it  is  equally  and  startlingly 
true  that  if  an  innocent  child  plays  with  fire  it  may  be 
injured  for  life,  or  even  burned  to  death,  in  which  case 
the  punishment,  if  it  could  be  prevented,  must  be  con- 
sidered simply  brutal,  and  without  justification.  In 
other  cases,  as  in  the  formation  of  bad  habits,  such  as 
those  of  appropriating  property  that  does  not  belong 
to  the  child,  or  smoking  cigarettes,  or  impure  thoughts, 
the  first  consequences  do  not  serve  as  a  sufficient  warn- 
ing against  fearful  final  effects. 

Notwithstanding  the  serious  weakness  of  this  chap- 
ter, we  owe  Spencer  our  thanks  for  opposing  the  harsh 
methods  of  discipline  so  common  in  his  days,  and  in 
other  days,  and  for  his  contention  that  the  only  mode 
of  discipline  which  produces  self-governing  men  and 
women  is  reasonable  discipline,  which  in  most  cases 
really  is  a  natural  discipline.  "Bear  constantly  in 
mind,"  says  Spencer,  "the  truth  that  the  aim  of  your 
discipline  should  be  to  produce  a  self-governing  being, 


TENDENCIES  431 

not  to  produce  a  being  to  be  governed  by  others. 
Were  your  children  fated  to  pass  their  lives  as  slaves, 
you  could  not  too  much  accustom  them  to  slavery 
during  their  childhood;  but  as  they  are  by  and  by  to 
be  freemen,  with  no  one  to  control  their  daily  conduct, 
you  cannot  too  much  accustom  them  to  self-control 
while  they  are  still  under  your  eye." 

Physical  Education. — In  the  last  chapter  of  his  book 
Spencer  calls  the  attention  of  parents  and  teachers  to 
the  great  importance  of  caring  for  the  body.  Al- 
though his  arguments  are  still  uncompromisingly 
utilitarian,  he  often  rises  to  the  real  moral  heights  of 
his  own  life.  Thus,  for  example,  he  believes  with 
Huxley  that  a  man  ought  to  be  "a  good  animal,"  evi- 
dently for  utilitarian  reasons,  but  in  the  same  breath 
urges  that  '^  health  is  a  duty."  In  the  same  vein  he 
finds  fault  with  the  fathers  of  England  for  being  more 
concerned  about  the  welfare  of  their  horses  and  cattle 
than  about  the  welfare  of  their  children.  "Men's 
habitual  words  and  acts,"  says  Spencer,  "imply  the 
idea  that  they  are  at  liberty  to  treat  their  bodies  as 
they  please.  Disorders  entailed  by  disobedience  to 
nature's  dictates  they  regard  simply  as  grievances,  not 
as  the  effects  of  a  conduct  more  or  less  flagitious. 
Though  the  evil  consequences  on  their  dependents 
and  on  future  generations  are  often  as  great  as  those 
caused  by  crime,  yet  they  do  not  think  themselves  in 
any  degree  criminal.  It  is  true  that  in  the  case  of 
drunkenness,  the  viciousness  of  a  purely  bodily  trans- 
gression is  recognized,  but  none  appears  to  infer  that, 
if  this  bodily  transgression  is  vicious,  so,  too,  is  every 
bodily  transgression.  The  fact  is  that  all  breaches  of 
the  laws  of  health  are  physical  sins." 


432  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

Applying  these  conclusions  to  the  condition  of  the 
English  schools  as  he  found  them,  Spencer  says:  "If, 
as  all  who  investigate  the  matter  must  admit,  physical 
degeneracy  is  a  consequence  of  excessive  study,  how- 
grave  is  the  condemnation  to  be  passed  upon  this 
cramming  system !  It  is  a  terrible  mistake,  from  what- 
ever point  of  view  regarded."  And  then  he  goes  on 
to  prove  that  even  if  the  overcrowded  courses  of  study 
which  he  had  in  mind  were  good  pedagogy — which  he 
denies — such  courses,  by  destroying  the  physical  vigor 
needed  in  life,  defeat  the  very  ends  of  education. 

Estimate. — That  Spencer's  conclusions  on  the  great 
questions  of  curriculum,  intellectual  development,  and 
moral  discipUne  are  based  upon  a  philosophy  which, 
to  say  the  least,  it  would  be  rash  to  accept  absolutely, 
must  be  evident  to  most  of  us,  and  yet  we  are  compelled 
to  admit  that  his  book  belongs  to  that  brief  list  of  im- 
mortal books  which  have  helped  to  make  the  teacher's 
world  and  the  pupil's  world  a  better  one.  It  stands 
for  conclusions  based  upon  exact  and  minute  inquiry 
into  facts,  and  patient  induction  that  must  ever  be  the 
scientific  mood  in  which  we  approach  and  under  which 
we  shall  finally  succeed  in  solving  our  great  problems 
of  life  and  mind. 

The  Vocational  Movement. — Invention,  as  Bacon 
foresaw,  has  followed  close  upon  the  heels  of  science. 
Thus  have  come  the  factory  system  and  other  indus- 
trial revolutions,  blotting  out  almost  completely  the 
old-time  stimulating  educational  relation  between 
vocational  masters  and  their  apprentices.  The  new 
relation,  namely,  that  of  employer  and  employee,  is 
much  more  mobile,  so  that  even  if  the  industrial  plant 
could  be  utilized  as  a  means  in  the  training  of  expert 


TENDENCIES  433 

operatives,  the  employer  could  not  be  sure  that  he 
would  reap  any  benefits.  Granted  that  through  the 
sharing  of  incomes  the  relation  of  employer  to  employee 
could  become  mutually  profitable,  the  modern  indus- 
trial plant — and  this  is  surely  serious — must  generally 
confine  the  operatives  to  a  single  process,  which  rather 
arrests  than  promotes  mental  development.  What  is 
still  more  serious — and  economy  makes  it  imperative — 
is  the  well-known  fact  that  only  a  few  of  the  many 
employments  in  a  great  industrial  plant  require  much 
mental  effort  at  all. 

If,  therefore,  the  vast  army  of  boys  and  girls  that 
annually  finds  its  way  into  the  industrial  world  is  to 
be  saved  from  the  fate  of  arrested  development— not 
to  speak  of  starvation  wages — and  the  social  whole 
into  which  these  young  people  merge  socially  is  to  be 
saved  from  mental,  political,  and  spiritual  degeneracy, 
the  school  must  assume  the  function  of  vocational 
guidance  and  vocational  training.  This  has  become 
the  irresistible  and  powerful  conviction  not  only  of 
educational  reformers — modern  Pestalozzis — but  also 
of  states  and  nations.  The  great  struggle  for  liveli- 
hood in  overcrowded  centres  of  population,  and  the 
still  greater  struggle  for  commercial  supremacy — often 
with  ulterior  motives  of  ulterior  political  ambition  in 
the  background,  as  in  the  case  of  modern  Germany — ■ 
have  made  most  states  and  nations  accept  as  final  the 
function  of  establishing  schools  in  which  boys  and  girls 
can  become  expert  "bread-winners"  and  expert  work- 
ers in  all  those  industries  where  efficiency  is  important 
to  the  welfare  of  the  social  whole  or  the  political  mas- 
ters. All  the  principal  states  of  Europe  have  main- 
tained such  training  as  integral  parts  of  their  educa- 


434  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

tional  systems  for  the  last  half-century,  and  the  United 
States  has  lately  taken  hold  of  the  matter  with  much 
enthusiasm. 

Europe. — In  Germany  vocational  education  is  pro- 
vided in  continuation  schools,  supplementing  ele- 
mentary, secondary,  and  higher  schools  of  the  national 
system.  In  this  way  provisions  have  been  made  not 
only  for  the  rank  and  file  of  workmen  in  the  different 
trades  but  also  for  the  development  of  foremen  and 
superintendents.  Germany  now  also  trains  girls  for 
quite  a  variety  of  vocations.  In  north  Germany  the 
schools  generally  confine  themselves  to  theory,  leaving 
the  practical  side  to  the  care  of  employers,  while  in  the 
south  German  states  the  two  sides  are  combined  and 
adapted  as  much  as  possible  to  local  industries. 

In  France  elementary  schools  articulate  into  con- 
tinuation schools  to  which  the  pupils  may  be  admitted 
at  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  continue  there  for  three 
years.  The  course  for  boys  varies  with  local  needs, 
but  always  includes  woodwork.  The  course  for  girls 
includes  dressmaking,  millinery,  artificial  flowers,  and 
other  useful  tasks. 

England  began  to  make  grants  for  evening  industrial 
schools  and  classes  as  early  as  1851,  and  twenty  years 
later  raised  these  tentative  provisions  into  regular 
continuation  schools  open  both  day  and  evening,  and 
offering  theory  as  well  as  practice.  In  addition  to 
these  continuation  schools  England  has  lately  estab- 
lished higher  elementary  schools  offering  four-year 
courses  in  theory  and  practice,  but  adapted  to  local 
needs. 

United  States. — In  the  United  States  some  of  the 
larger  cities,   notably  New  York,   Philadelphia,    Cin- 


TENDENCIES  435 

cinnati,  and  Richmond,  began  to  offer  industrial  train- 
ing through  philanthropy  the  latter  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  but  only  in  evening  continuation 
schools.  It  was  not  until  later  that  the  public  schools 
followed  the  example,  and  organized  evening  classes  in 
mathematics,  drawing,  science,  and  technical  subjects. 
After  some  years  day  instruction  began,  and  since  1906 
several  hundred  day  trade-schools,  some  for  younger 
boys  and  some  for  youths  between  sixteen  and  twenty- 
one,  have  been  organized  in  the  larger  cities,  and  mostly 
through  public  support.  Endowed  secondary  schools 
and  technical  high  schools  in  a  number  of  cities  also 
provide  higher  training  to  equip  our  industries  with 
leaders.  "Part-time"  vocational  training  has  recently 
been  attempted  in  connection  with  high  school  and 
college  courses.  In  the  great  reconstruction  following 
the  recent  war,  Europe  will  need  a  veritable  army  of 
young  men  trained  for  expert  work  and  leadership  in 
many  vocations,  and,  deprived  of  the  opportunity  to 
train  these  industrials,  she  will  call  upon  America  for 
help,  and  America  cannot  afford  to  be  unprepared. 
This  special  stimulus,  added  to  the  general  industrial 
awakening  of  the  country,  should  rouse  much  en- 
thusiasm. 

Commerce. — The  great  industrial  awakening  of  the 
last  half-century  has  forced  commerce  into  such  vast 
proportions  and  technical  complexities  that  expert 
training  has  become  imperative.  Until  quite  recently, 
however,  it  was  assumed  that  such  training  was  not 
the  function  of  the  school.  The  schoolmen  looked 
upon  such  schooling  as  sordid,  and  the  business  world 
waited  to  be  convinced  of  its  efficiency.  The  convic- 
tion that  the  school  owes  something  to  commerce  and 


436  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

that  it  can  really  serve  commerce  is  rapidly  breaking 
down  all  prejudice  and  replacing  it  with  hope  and  con- 
fidence. 

Germany,  hoping  to  establish  a  world-empire  in 
commerce,  began  soon  after  the  Franco-Prussian  War 
to  train  commercial  experts  through  private  continua- 
tion schools,  in  which  a  course  of  three  years  in  com- 
mercial studies  and  modern  languages  was  offered. 
To  these  facilities  the  government  later  added  both 
public  secondary  and  university  courses.  Although 
England  and  France  were  both  rather  tardy  in  the 
matter,  both  private  and  public  facilities  of  a  high 
order  have  been  organized. 

In  the  United  States  the  commercial  movement  be- 
came a  school  movement  shortly  before  the  Civil  War. 
The  bookkeeping  classes  with  which  the  movement 
began  through  private  enterprise  soon  gave  rise  to 
so-called  "business  colleges."  These,  alas!  were  too 
frequently  pecuniary  adventures  and  makeshifts  rather 
than  effective  agencies  in  the  training  of  candidates  for 
such  a  complex  of  mental  and  moral  processes  as  modern 
business.  The  normal  schools,  largely  to  save  the  boy 
and  girl  for  themselves,  and  thus  for  an  education  of 
better  proportions,  have  until  quite  recently  offered 
similar  courses.  Now  that  state  supervision,  inspired 
by  the  great  commercial  awakening,  has  incorporated 
optional  business  courses  into  our  public  high  schools, 
the  normal  schools  offer  less  ambitious  business  courses. 
One  of  the  first  attempts  in  this  country  to  solve  the 
problem  of  higher  commercial  education  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Com- 
merce at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Since  then 
many  universities  have  established  colleges  of  com- 


TENDENCIES  437 

merce,  some  of  them  offering  superior  scientific  and 
technical  courses  in  finance  and  banking,  international 
law  and  comity,  modern  languages  and  other  allied 
subjects. 

Agriculture. — The  pastoral  stage  of  civilization  was 
followed  by  the  agricultural,  and  the  latter  must  in 
the  last  analysis  be  looked  upon  as  the  fundamental 
industry.  So  prolific,  however,  is  nature,  that  as  long 
as  it  was  possible  to  supplement  the  production  of 
food  in  any  country  by  imports  the  government  made 
no  efforts  to  reform  traditional  and  wasteful  methods 
of  agriculture.  When  Europe  reached  the  acute  stage, 
agricultural  bureaus  for  research  purposes  were  estab- 
lished by  the  countries  affected,  and  presently  agricul- 
ture became  a  part  of  the  school  curriculum.  France, 
for  example,  has  introduced  the  subject  into  elementary 
education  and  the  normal  schools,  while  Germany,  in 
addition  to  elementary  instruction,  provides  a  secon- 
dary course  in  the  upper  grades  of  the  Realschulen. 

It  dawned  early  upon  statesmen  of  vision  that 
among  the  greatest  of  our  natural  resources  in  America 
are  vast  agricultural  regions,  and  that  it  is  best  to  keep 
pace  in  food  supply  with  the  growth  of  cities  as  indus- 
trial and  commercial  centres.  Therefore  the  national 
government  as  early  as  1862,  when  we  were  still  in  the 
midst  of  the  Civil  War,  began  to  stimulate  agricultural 
instruction  by  granting  land  to  colleges.  Presently 
other  revenues  were  added,  and  recently  Congress  has 
begun  to  furnish  appropriations  for  agricultural  instruc- 
tion and  college  extension  work.  The  great  exodus  of 
the  country  folk  to  the  city  within  the  last  generation, 
resulting  from  the  vast  extension  of  the  industrial  rev- 
olution, has  produced  an  ominous  congestion  of  popu- 


438  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

lation  in  the  great  cities,  and  for  this  reason  and  also 
because  agricultural  instruction  has  been  discovered  to 
have  great  educational  value,  the  various  States  have 
begun  in  earnest  to  make  agriculture  an  integral  part  of 
the  regular  school  curriculum,  thus  turning  thousands 
of  boys  and  girls  "back  to  the  farm."  The  great  need 
is  trained  teachers,  able  to  produce  the  desired  result. 
The  recent  world  war  has  given  an  additional  im- 
pulse to  agriculture  in  the  schools,  which  is  likely  to 
bear  further  fruit.  Moreover,  forestry  is  likely  to 
share  with  agriculture  in  the  benefits  of  this  im- 
pulse. 

Religion  and  Morality. — If,  as  psychology  goes  to 
show,  religion,  that  is,  relation  to  a  personal  God,  is  the 
final  guarantee  of  morality,  we  might  conclude  off- 
hand that  the  cause  of  morals  would  suffer  irreparably 
by  the  surrender  of  the  church  to  the  state  in  the  con- 
trol of  education.  Thus  far,  to  say  the  least,  the  re- 
sults are  rather  startling.  This  is  true  first  of  all  in 
France,  from  whose  state-controlled  schools  not  only 
religious  instruction  but  all  reference  to  the  supernat- 
ural has  been  barred.  But  when  we  turn  to  Ger- 
many, where,  under  rigid  state  control  of  education, 
moral  instruction  is  designedly  and  closely  correlated 
with  religious  instruction,  apparently  satisfactory  to 
Protestants,  Catholics,  and  Jews,  because  it  is  imparted 
by  their  accredited  representatives,  morality  as  well 
as  religion  has  become  a  slave  to  the  despotism  of  dynas- 
tic militarism.  In  England,  on  the  other  hand,  where 
by  age-old  deference  to  the  church  moral  instruction 
is  designedly  denominational  in  the  "voluntary  schools  " 
and  undenominational  in  the  "board  schools,"  much 
bitterness  has  resulted  from  competition  between  the 


TENDENCIES  439 

two  kinds  of  schools,  and  the  situation  is  still  a  serious 
problem. 

In  the  United  States  the  secularization  of  the  schools 
has  left  no  place  for  denominational  instruction  in  the 
curriculum,  and  yet  in  most  States  the  Bible  is  not  only 
read  but  revered  as  the  "book  of  books"  and  as  the 
final  court  of  morals.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  denomina- 
tional instruction  is  distinctly  prohibited,  any  ab- 
sence of  reverence  for  God  and  sacred  institutions,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  generally  considered  fatal  to  the  moral 
influence  for  which  we  look  in  the  teacher. 

The  fact  must  be  patent  to  any  dispassionate  ob- 
server that,  in  spite  of  serious  setbacks,  the  cause  of 
religious  morality  has  lately  been  gaining  until  it 
promises  to  become,  as  we  might  have  expected  from 
its  primal  function  in  life,  the  dominant  motive  in 
modern  education.  This  moral  revival  manifests  it- 
self very  conspicuously  in  the  long-range  relations  of 
interdependence  resulting  from  modern  industries, 
modern  commerce,  modern  government,  and  the  mod- 
ern press,  in  all  of  which  honesty  in  its  various  aspects 
is  indispensable  to  the  very  continuance  of  relations. 
A  growing  sense  of  human  kinship  and  responsibility  is 
another  conspicuous  promise  that  instruction  in  respon- 
sible stewardship  will  be  increasingly  emphasized  in 
education.  The  conviction  that  what  America  needs 
most  is  an  educational  system  which  is  moral  from 
the  base  to  the  summit  is  wide-spread  and  insistent. 
This  appears  from  the  profound  attention  which  the 
subject  receives  not  only  in  state  conventions  of  edu- 
cators but  especially  also  from  the  fact  that  the  matter 
has  been  carried  up  into  the  council  of  the  "National 
Education  Association."     The  two  phases  of  the  ten- 


440  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

dency  may  be  advantageously  viewed  under  the  idea 
of  honesty  and  stewardship. 

Honesty. — The  conviction  that  morality  should  be 
the  crowning  effect  of  any  system  of  modern  education 
arises  especially,  as  before  noticed,  from  the  new  long- 
distance relations  between  man  and  man.  Production 
for  distant  markets,  for  example,  tempts  men  at  both 
ends  of  the  line  to  various  species  of  dishonesty. 

The  large  proportions  which  representative  govern- 
ment in  this  country  has  assumed  tend  to  remove  the 
individual  representative  from  the  immediate  scrutiny 
of  the  people  and  thus  to  moral  laxity  of  office. 

The  new  social  and  moral  conditions  to  which  young 
men  and  women  coming  to  big  industrial  and  com- 
mercial centres  in  ever  greater  numbers  have  to  become 
used  are  full  of  moral  perils,  especially  because  the 
stabilizing  moral  sanctions  of  home  and  boyhood 
church  cannot  usually  be  duplicated.  It  is  in  order 
that  under  such  new  and  trying  conditions  young  people 
may  give  a  satisfactory  account  of  themselves  to  the 
state  as  to  the  high  tribunal  of  conscience  that  Ameri- 
can schools  must  be  expected  to  ally  themselves  with 
the  church  and  the  home  in  laying  stress  on  moral 
education. 

Stewardship. — That  the  sense  of  stewardship  which 
Christ  brought  into  the  world  is  making  itself  felt,  es- 
pecially in  America  and  American  education,  and  that 
its  radius  is  lengthening  into  a  world-empire,  is  very 
evident. 

Denominational  Colleges. — Much  as  we  pride  our- 
selves upon  state  colleges,  and  justly  so,  we  feel  that 
we  must  look  to  our  denominational  colleges  to  supply 
the  higher  education  of  the  Christian  ministry — an  in- 
dispensable agency  in  moral  education.     It  is  generally 


TENDENCIES  441 

recognized  that  although  these  colleges  have  in  some 
instances  been  multiplied  beyond  the  possibility  of 
highest  efficiency,  they  perform  a  function  which  the 
state  colleges  and  other  higher  institutions  could  not 
be  expected  to  perform,  namely,  the  keeping  alive  of 
those  great  Bible  truths  which  serve  as  most  powerful 
moral  stimuli. 

Other  Colleges. — That  the  Bible  is  looked  upon  as 
the  indispensable  book  in  the  higher  moral  education 
which  the  present  age  demands  finds  confirmation  in 
the  fact  that  many  colleges  have  recently  introduced 
it  into  the  course  as  a  regular  study.  Such  instruction, 
properly  imparted,  is  of  great  importance  to  young 
men  in  their  adolescence. 

Christian  Associations. — Young  Men's  and  Young 
Women's  Christian  Associations  are  playing  an  im- 
portant part  in  building  up  the  religious  ideals  of  our 
young  people,  and  the  Women's  Christian  Temper- 
ance Union  has  done  a  good  work  in  bringing  about  the 
formulation  of  state  regulations  on  questions  of  tem- 
perance which  profoundly  influence  not  only  higher 
education  but  also  our  common  schools. 

Sunday-Schools. — While  the  specific  purpose  of  the 
present-day  Sunday-school  is  religious,  it  is  a  powerful 
and  highly  esteemed  moral  agency.  Whether  England 
or  America  is  really  the  historical  cradle  of  the  Sunday- 
school  may  remain  in  dispute,  but  England  and  America 
both  look  upon  this  integral  part  of  church  work  as  a 
most  essential  agency  in  the  development  of  public 
morals.  The  growth  in  number  of  these  educational 
facilities  is  phenomenal. 

Our  Unfortunates. — The  sense  of  Christian  steward- 
ship in  modern  education  is  conspicuous  in  the  pro- 
visions made  for   the  education   of  defectives.     The 


442  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

feeling  prevails  that  not  only  the  church  but  also  the 
state  owes  all  unfortunates  an  education  that  functions 
in  self-help,  self-respect,  and  such  happiness  as  may  be 
possible  under  the  circumstances.  The  blessed  task 
of  providing  facilities  for  an  astonishingly  large  num- 
ber of  mental  defectives  and  sense  defectives  and  other 
unfortunates  can  be  effectively  performed  only  by  co- 
operation between  the  church,  the  state,  and  men  of 
wealth.  The  latter,  by  their  munificence,  especially 
in  great  crises,  have  frequently  vindicated  themselves 
from  the  charge  of  heartlessness.  The  great  progress 
which  the  present  age  is  making  in  the  education  of 
defectives  and  other  unfortunates  is  due  to  a  large 
extent  to  gifted  individuals  who  have  devoted  their 
lives  to  the  discovery  of  methods. 

The  greatest  credit  for  the  discovery  of  methods  in 
the  education  of  mental  defectives  probably  belongs 
to  Edward  Seguin,  who  came  from  France  to  the 
United  States  in  1850  and  developed  his  methods  here. 
He  appealed  to  the  mind  through  the  senses,  using 
such  means  as  pictures,  photographs,  wax,  clay,  com- 
passes, and  pencils.  These  "physiological"  methods 
of  Seguin  have  sometimes  been  supplemented  by  books 
as  means,  but  without  much  success.  France,  Eng- 
land, and  Germany  provide  for  the  training  of  mental 
defectives  along  these  lines,  but  the  United  States, 
thanks  to  the  fine  start  given  to  us  by  Seguin,  provides 
most  fully  for  such  education.  About  twenty  thou- 
sand, or  one-tenth  of  the  whole  number  of  such  defec- 
tives in  this  country  are  receiving  special  training. 
Special  clinics  and  investigations  looking  toward  the 
discovery  of  helpful  methods  are  being  conducted  by 
Doctor  Witmer  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 


TENDENCIES  443 

by  Doctor  Goddard  of  the  Training-School  at  Vine- 
land,  N.  J.  Considerable  progress  has  been  made 
lately  in  the  organization  of  tests,  like  the  Binet-Simon 
tests  for  feeble-mindedness. 

Sense  Defectives. — Thousands  of  boys  and  girls  men- 
tally sound,  but  handicapped  in  the  struggle  to  make 
a  living,  or  a  conscious  burden  upon  others,  and  corre- 
spondingly unhappy,  have  become  the  proteges  of  the 
larger  stewardship  so  conspicuous  in  the  educational 
idealism  of  the  present  age. 

To  Abbe  de  I'Epee  of  Paris  belongs  the  credit  of  in- 
venting the  first  of  the  two  chief  methods  of  educating 
the  deaf,  namely,  the  manual  or  silent  method.  His 
school  was  adopted  by  the  French  nation  in  1791,  and 
has  served  useful  purposes  in  other  lands.  The  lip- 
movement  or  oral  method,  although  known  earlier  than 
the  silent  miethod,  was  not  employed  much  before  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  is  now  the  fa- 
vored method  of  most  countries.  The  two  methods 
are  sometimes  combined.  Practically  every  State  in 
our  country  has  one  or  more  schools  for  the  deaf,  and 
in  Gallaudet  College,  at  Washington,  provisions  have 
been  made  for  higher  education. 

The  credit  of  inventing  the  method  of  teaching  the 
blind  by  means  of  ''raised  letters"  belongs  to  another 
Parisian,  Abbe  Haiiy.  Through  some  fault  in  the 
management,  his  schools,  founded  late  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  were  failures,  but  early  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury his  method  had  been  adopted  by  all  the  leading 
countries  of  Europe,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  century 
similar  institutions  were  founded  in  the  United  States. 

The  skill  to  which  both  the  deaf  and  the  blind  may 
attain  in  handicrafts  is  simply  marvellous.     The  most 


444  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

conspicuous  examples  of  high  mental  attainments  are 
the  well-known  cases  of  Laura  Bridgman  and  Helen 
Keller. 

In  America  the  provisions  made  for  the  education  of 
millions  of  negroes  whom  the  Civil  War  emancipated 
but  stranded  morally  and  industrially  must  be  ascribed 
not  only  to  the  desire  to  escape  a  burden,  but  also  to 
the  sense  of  larger  brotherhood  and  stewardship.  Here 
men  of  wealth,  like  John  F.  Slater,  vied  with  the  Freed- 
man's  Bureau  and  other  organizations  of  church  and 
state  in  their  efforts  to  shoulder  great  moral  responsi- 
bilities. The  New  South  owes  a  great  debt  to  these 
agencies.  They  helped  to  make  such  experiments  as 
that  of  Booker  T.  Washington  at  Tuskegee  possible. 
In  this  connection,  too,  we  cannot  afford  to  ignore  the 
splendid  services  of  Robert  C.  Ogden,  after  whom  a 
movement  in  Southern  education  has  been  named. 

The  same  spirit  of  philanthropic  sense  of  respon- 
sibility has  prompted  institutional  efforts  to  provide 
schools  for  the  dispossessed  Indians  of  the  great  West. 
One  of  the  most  successful  Indian  schools  was  the  great 
institution  at  Carlisle,  Pa. 

Among  other  moral  movements  in  modern  education 
are  the  reform  schools  where  boys  and  girls  otherwise 
lost  to  themselves  and  the  social  whole  are  educated. 
Probably  the  most  conspicuous  experiment  in  the 
philanthropic  reclamation  of  prospective  criminals  is 
the  George  Junior  Republic  of  New  York  State,  founded 
by  Captain  George  for  the  education  of  city  street 
boys,  and  widely  copied  in  other  States. 

Educational  Experiments. — The  tendency  to  fossil- 
ize in  educational  practice  is  more  than  matched  in 
the  present  age  by  the  tendency  to  subject  every  ap- 


TENDENCIES  445 

parent  conquest  to  new  and  more  searching  tests.  This 
is  to  our  credit,  for  it  is  an  admission  that  we  have  not 
yet  attained  perfection.  We  can  review  only  the  most 
conspicuous  of  these  experiments. 

The  Parker  Experiments. — Francis  W.  Parker  (183 1- 
1902)  began  his  own  education  in  a  New  Hampshire 
district  school,  and  after  a  course  of  several  years  in 
the  University  of  Berlin,  he  became  the  superintendent 
of  the  schools  of  Quincy,  Mass.  (1875-1880).  The 
board  gave  him  a  free  hand,  and  he  fairly  revolu- 
tionized both  the  content  of  the  curriculum  and  the 
methods  of  instruction,  harmonizing  both  with  the 
Froebellian  principles  of  motor-expression  and  social 
participation,  and  giving  even  speech  and  the  language 
arts  these  aspects.  Much  of  the  work  was  outdoor 
and  informal,  and  thus  Pestalozzian.  This  ''Quincy 
movement"  assumed  a  longer  and  longer  radius  in  his 
later  reforms  as  principal  of  the  Cook  County  and 
Chicago  normal  schools  (1883-1899),  whence  he  sent 
forth  enthusiastic  disciples.  In  a  way  his  experiments 
made  those  of  Dewey  possible.  Colonel  Parker's  in- 
fluence also  lives  through  his  books. 

The  Dewey  Experiments. — Doctor  John  Dewey  made 
an  educational  experiment  at  Chicago  University  be- 
tween 1896  and  1903  that  must  be  looked  upon  as  one 
of  the  notable  contributions  to  the  theory  of  education. 
Dewey  noted  that  human  relations  are  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  industries  in  which  people  engage,  and, 
accepting  the  adjustment  of  the  individual  and  the 
social  whole  to  each  other  as  his  educational  ideal,  he 
held  that  the  curriculum  of  the  school  should  consist 
very  largely  of  those  industries  which  produce  ideal  re- 
lations.    Accordingly,  in  the  elementary  school  which 


446  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

he  established,  "weaving,  sewing,  cooking,  and  shop- 
work  served  as  the  introduction  to  other  industrial 
activities,  all  which  received  a  historical  study."  The 
social  participation,  together  with  motor-expression, 
on  which  Froebel  insisted  in  the  kindergarten  are  both 
present  in  Dewey's  larger  selection  of  occupational 
activities,  and  the  selective  freedom  of  the  pupil  is 
more  ideally  safeguarded.  In  this  way  significant,  and 
therefore  justifiable,  content  was  given  to  such  studies 
as  science,  history,  and  art,  while  instruction  in  such 
formal  studies  as  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic 
found  most  efTective  motives  in  the  "realism"  of  the 
tasks.  Moreover,  the  social  participation  which  occu- 
pations promote  produce  individual  experiences  about 
which  it  is  interesting  to  talk  and  which  are  interest- 
ing to  an  audience,  thus  furnishing  the  best  psychologi- 
cal motive  for  oral  expression. 

The  "Annual  Report  of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation" 
in  191 6,  outlining  a  curriculum  based  upon  the  principle 
that  "the  accessible  world  of  the  child  should  be  used 
as  his  educational  laboratory,"  may  be  regarded  as  an 
extreme  interpretation  of  Dewey's  occupational  cur- 
riculum. 

In  his  later  interpretations  of  the  teaching  process, 
as  we  should  expect  from  the  observations  which  he 
was  able  to  make  of  the  child-mind  at  work,  he  calls 
attention  to  those  processes  by  which  the  mind  comes 
into  relation  with  the  objective  world,  and  points  out 
how  largely  our  methods  of  teaching  should  produce 
and  promote  these  processes.  He  calls  the  new  way  of 
approach  the  "problem  method,"  and  shows  that, 
notwithstanding  the  common  opinion  handed  down 
from  Aristotle's  time,  this  problem  method  of  thinking 


TENDENCIES  447 

(hunting,  guessing)  largely  precedes  and  often  super- 
sedes both  induction  and  deduction  in  their  formal 
aspect. 

Among  the  illuminating  books  which  Doctor  Dewey 
has  contributed  to  the  teaching  profession  are  "School 
and  Society,"  *'How  We  Think,"  "Interest  and  Effort 
in  Education,"  and  "The  Schools  of  To-Morrow." 
That  the  biological  conception  embodied  in  Doctor 
William  James'  "Talks  to  Teachers"  and  Doctor 
Hall's  "Adolescence,"  together  with  the  wholesome 
corrective  studies  of  Doctor  Judd,  are  in  amazing  har- 
mony with  Deweyism  was  only  to  be  expected. 

The  Gary  System. — As  a  rule,  all  the  pupils  of  the  or- 
dinary city  school  do  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time. 
In  the  morning  they  meet  in  the  auditorium  for  general 
exercises,  after  which,  except  for  brief  periods  of  in- 
termission, the  day  is  spent  in  classrooms.  This  ar- 
rangement leaves  either  the  auditorium  or  the  class- 
rooms unoccupied,  or  largely  so,  at  alternate  times. 
At  Gary,  Indiana,  Superintendent  William  Wirt  has 
worked  out  a  "work-study-play"  system  of  schools 
which  might  be  characterized  as  an  expansion  of 
Deweyism  in  education  and  as  a  realization  of  the 
Rockefeller  ideal.  Here  all  school  activities  are  car- 
ried on  simultaneously  in  shops,  laboratories,  gym- 
nasiums, swimming-pools,  gardens,  libraries,  class- 
rooms, and  auditoriums.  In  other  words,  while  some 
classes  are  studying  or  reciting  in  classrooms,  others 
are  working  in  shops  and  laboratories,  still  others  are 
playing,  reading,  or  busy  in  auditoriums.  The  plan 
gathers  up  and  employs  the  whole  child,  and  while  it 
makes  the  school-day  longer,  it  utilizes  much  time  and 
space  usually  wasted,  and  enlarges  the  curriculum  into 


448  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

a  miniature  world.  Then,  too,  by  housing  double  the 
number  of  pupils  in  the  same  space,  it  solves  the  "half- 
time"  problem  which  exists  in  many  large  cities,  and 
it  probably  saves  some  expense.  Whether  the  Gary 
system  can  accommodate  itself  to  cities  which  cannot 
readily  place  their  industrial  and  economic  means  at 
the  disposal  of  the  school  as  necessary  co-ordinates,  or 
where  those  co-ordinates  would  hardly  tend  to  enrich 
the  curriculum,  remains  to  be  tried  out.  Experiments 
are  in  progress,  and  the  likelihood  is  that  if  the  system 
cannot  be  adopted  as  a  whole  it  will  stimulate  salutary 
reconstructions. 

The  Montessori  Method. — The  educational  experi- 
ments which  Doctor  Maria  Montessori  (1870-  )  has 
been  making  since  1907  at  Rome  have  attracted  un- 
usual attention.  There,  in  connection  with  her  work 
in  the  University  of  Rome,  she  became  interested  in 
the  educational  possibilities  of  defective  children,  and, 
adapting  materials  used  by  Seguin,  she  devised  "di- 
dactic apparatus"  for  the  training  of  the  senses.  Her 
success  with  defectives  brought  her  the  opportunity  of 
organizing  infant  schools  for  normal  children  in  the 
poorest  parts  of  Rome.  Rooms  opening  out  into  a 
court  were  furnished  according  to  her  directions  and 
called  "The  Children's  Houses."  The  methods  used 
in  her  experiments  have  been  adopted  by  many  schools 
in  Italy  and  Switzerland  and  in  other  countries. 

With  Rousseau  and  Froebel,  Madame  Montessori 
assumes  that  "nature  is  right,"  and  that  accordingly 
it  is  the  teacher's  function  to  observe,  test,  and  direct 
rather  than  control  children  in  the  educative  process. 
In  the  administration  of  this  generally  accepted  prin- 
ciple, however,  she  provides  less  for  "group  problems," 


TENDENCIES  449 

or  social  participation,  on  the  part  of  the  little  people, 
and  isolates  herself  far  more  from  this  participation 
than  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel. 

Although  in  her  selection  and  organization  of  di- 
dactic materials,  such  as  silk  bobbins,  blocks,  and  cylin- 
ders, to  wake  the  mind  through  the  senses,  she  is  evi- 
dently seeking  to  escape  the  narrow  formalism  of  the 
Froebel  "gifts,"  she  is  less  fortunate  than  Dewey  in 
her  equally  evident  attempt  to  make  the  school  a 
miniature  world  in  her  "The  Children's  Houses." 

Madame  Montessori  has  probably  attained  to  great- 
est success  in  her  attempt  to  teach  such  formal  sub- 
jects as  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  She  has 
analyzed  these  subjects  into  elementary  activities, 
which,  when  mastered  by  the  child,  prompt  the  child, 
with  very  little  help  from  the  teacher,  to  master  the 
subjects  in  question  by  spontaneous  synthesis.  The 
exhibits  which  Madame  Montessori  and  her  enthusiastic 
disciples  carry  with  them  on  their  lecture  tours  cer- 
tainly justify  the  furor  they  produce,  but  can  hardly 
be  duplicated  in  languages  less  phonetic  than  the 
Italian.  Perhaps  the  greatest  contribution  of  Madame 
Montessori  to  education  is  the  new  sympathy  with  de- 
fective and  subnormal  children  which  her  devotion  to 
the  cause  inspires  in  teachers,  and  the  resulting  stimulus 
to  the  study  of  individual  children  in  our  schools. 

Statistics  and  Mental  Measurements. — Statistical 
reports,  especially  in  the  United  States,  came  into 
prominent  use  in  connection  with  the  establishment  of 
the  National  Bureau  of  Education  and  various  sub- 
joined agencies.  Through  the  praiseworthy  initiative 
of  Doctor  Edward  L.  Thorndike  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity  the  statistical  method  has  lately  been  devel- 


450  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

oped  into  a  veritable  laboratory  method  of  solving 
problems  of  education.  In  his  "Educational  Psy- 
chology" he  contends  that  individual  differences  and 
the  factors  which  condition  them  may  be  accurately 
stated  in  quantitative  description,  and  in  his  "Mental 
and  Social  Measurements"  he  outlines  methods  of 
procedure.  The  scales  of  measurement  which  he  has 
devised  as  tests  of  handwriting,  arithmetic,  and  com- 
position have  prompted  the  devising  of  similar  scales 
for  spelling  and  drawing,  and  the  likelihood  is  that  it 
will  not  be  long  before  educational  experts  will  succeed 
in  working  out  acceptable  scales  for  all  school  work. 
In  other  words,  this  movement  promises  to  retire  all 
the  older  books  on  principles  and  methods  of  teaching 
to  the  ash-heap  in  favor  of  new  treatments  which  sh2.ll 
base  both  the  content  and  the  methods  of  instruction 
on  the  findings  of  these  experts.  The  day  is  not  far 
distant  when,  in  order  to  make  them  accessible  to  the 
rank  and  file  of  teachers,  the  necessary  scales  them- 
selves will  be  found  in  books  on  teaching,  and  the 
teacher's  library  must  contain  extensive  references. 
Nor  will  this  scientific  impulse  expend  its  force  in  the 
correction  of  the  school  curriculum  and  class  methods 
of  instruction.  Even  now  the  statistical  method  has 
been  developed  into  scientific  surveys  of  city  schools 
and  the  details  of  administration.  The  general  "re- 
construction" of  education  made  necessary  by  the  re- 
cent war  will  surely  take  the  form  of  such  surveys,  and 
contribute  largely  to  the  differentiation  of  the  rural 
schools  from  the  city  schools  for  which  the  natural  con- 
ditions and  course  of  events  so  loudly  call. 

Prospects. — The  outlook  is  full  of  promise.     That 
we  are  on  the  very  edge  of  a  golden  age  immeasurably 


TENDENCIES  451 

more  glorious  than  that  of  ancient  Athens  cannot  well 
be  doubted.  This  appears  especially  from  the  vast 
extension  of  educational  opportunities.  The  great 
universities  open  their  doors  to  multitudes  of  ambitious 
teachers  through  summer  sessions,  thus  inspiring  and 
equipping  leaders,  and,  while  doing  this,  they  bring 
the  cumulating  wealth  of  expert  information  to  a  vast 
population  in  all  the  walks  of  life  through  correspon- 
dence courses  and  seasonal  courses  organized  for  the 
benefit  of  farmers  and  the  followers  of  other  vocations. 

In  secondary  education  the  "junior  High  School," 
combining  the  last  two  years  of  the  elementary  school 
with  the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  makes  it  possible  to 
provide  a  multitude  of  boys  and  girls  who  cannot  go 
through  the  high  school  with  valuable  vocational  gui- 
dance and  vocational  training  together  with  culture  in 
studies  which  give  such  pupils  control  of  higher  things  in 
life.  At  the  same  time,  this  "bridging"  process,  as  sta- 
tistics would  seem  to  show,  encourages  a  very  consider- 
able number  of  pupils  to  take  the  full  course  in  our  high 
schools  for  at  least  two  reasons:  first,  because  a  some- 
what intimate  identification  with  maturer  minds  acts  as 
an  inspiring  stimulus,  and  second,  because  the  three 
years  in  question  afford  the  pupils  a  better  perspective. 

Medical  inspection  and  school  sanitation,  together 
with  open-air  schools  for  tubercular  children,  is  still 
another  extension  of  public  privileges  in  our  school 
system. 

A  most  encouraging  example  of  the  "extension" 
movement  is  the  larger  use  of  the  school  plant  by 
making  it  the  "community  centre."  This  movement 
makes  it  possible  for  the  whole  neighborhood  to  con- 
tinue to  go  to  school  through  public  lectures  and  politi- 


452  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

cal  debates,  and,  under  efficient  engineering,  to  re- 
main identified  with  healthful  recreation  in  the  form 
of  dramatic  amusements,  pageantry,  moving  pictures, 
field-day  contests,  etc. 

The  conflict  between  the  claims  of  the  individual  and 
the  social  whole,  and  the  dominance  of  the  one  set  of 
claims  over  that  of  the  other,  so  frequently  the  problem 
of  the  centuries,  are,  let  us  hope,  about  to  find  a  true 
adjustment  through  proper  recognition  of  the  claims 
of  God.  That  the  ultimate  triumph  of  Christian  de- 
mocracy over  the  organized  and  intrenched  forces  of 
a  godless  autocracy  will  conspire  with  other  forward 
movements  to  produce  the  most  glorious  age  in  educa- 
tion is  our  fervent  prayer. 

In  the  meantime  the  Orient  has  become  deeply  in- 
terested in  the  Occident,  and  will  surely  become  identi- 
fied with  the  great  brotherhood  of  Christian  nations, 
by  adopting  and  adapting  their  school  systems.  The 
prophetic  dreams  of  the  great  educational  reformers  of 
all  centuries  seem  sure  to  find  their  highest  fulfilment. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education." 

2.  Annual  Reports  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion. 

3.  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association. 

4.  Year-Books  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific  Study 
of  Education. 

5.  Graves'  "History  of  Education,"  vol.  III. 

6.  Parker's  "History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education." 

7.  Cubberley's  "Changing  Conceptions  of  Education." 

8.  Dewey's  "Schools  of  To-Morrow." 

9.  Montessori's  "The  Montessori  Method." 

10.  Duggan's  "History  of  Education." 

11.  Williams'  "History  of  Modern  Education." 

12.  Annual  Reports  of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation. 


TENDENCIES  453 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  has  been  the  "continued  problem"  in  educational 
movements  and  what  appears  now  to  be  in  sight? 

2.  What  method  of  inquiry  and  enrichment  of  curriculum  are 
known  as  the  "scientific  movement"? 

3.  Examine  the  educative  influences  that  helped  to  make 
Spencer. 

4.  What  did  he  try  to  prove  in  his  "  Principles  of  Psychology  "  ? 
Why  does  his  book  on  "Education"  deserve  special  study? 

5.  At  what  conclusions  did  Spencer  arrive  in  the  first  chapter 
of  "Education"  and  by  what  argument?  Challenge  his  con- 
clusions with  counter-arguments. 

6.  State  the  principles  of  pedagogy  which  Spencer  undertook 
to  establish  by  scientific  argument  in  his  second  chapter.  State 
his  biological  conception  of  education  as  "recapitulation,"  and 
argue  it  pro  and  con.  Read  Spencer  himself  on  his  last  prin- 
ciple and  report  fully. 

7.  For  which  of  Rousseau's  principles  does  Spencer  contend  in 
his  chapter  on  moral  education  ?  With  what  generally  accepted 
principle  does  his  conclusion  conflict,  and  why  is  it  serious  when 
carried  to  logical  limits?  What  do  we  accept  with  satisfaction 
in  this  chapter? 

8.  Show  that  Spencer  in  his  last  chapter  on  education  was  at 
his  best  when  he  ceased  to  be  merely  utilitarian  and  rose  to 
moral  heights.     What  was  the  fine  purpose  of  this  chapter? 

9.  Why,  in  spite  of  its  weaknesses,  must  Spencer's  book  on 
education  be  looked  upon  as  an  invaluable  contribution  to  the 
cause  of  education? 

10.  Account  for  the  present  relation  between  employer  and 
employee,  and  explain  the  new  burden  which  this  situation  puts 
upon  the  school. 

11.  What  provisions  have  Germany,  France,  England,  and 
the  United  States  made  for  vocational  education? 

12.  What  educational  provisions  for  the  production  of  com- 
mercial experts  do  these  countries  now  make,  and  why? 

13.  Why  was  so  tardy  a  recognition  accorded  to  agriculture 
in  educational  systems,  and  to  what  position  of  honor  has  it 
now  attained  in  Europe?  Trace  the  course  of  this  movement 
fully  in  the  United  States. 


454  fflSTORY   OF   EDUCATION 

14.  How  has  the  loss  of  church  control  over  education  affected 
morals  in  France,  Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States? 

1$.  What  new  industrial  relations  have  made  it  important 
to  emphasize  Christian  morality  iryf^ducation?^' 

16.  Why  are  denominational  coisifecs  such  a'^^iowerful  moral 
stimulus?  How  have  other  colleges  recently  manifested  the 
sense  of  moral  stewardship  ?  To  what  extent  does  this  sense  of 
stewardship  account  for  the  presence  of  Christian  Associations 
in  higher  institutions? 

17.  Why  does  concern  for  public  morals  produce  respect  for 
Sunday-schools? 

18.  How  largely  is  it  due  to  this  sense  of  Christian  steward- 
ship that  there  is  so  much  co-operative  effort  in  providing  edu- 
cational facihties  for  unfortunates? 

19.  Who  was  Edward  Seguin?  What  have  different  coun- 
tries done  with  the  stewardship  which  he  made  possible? 

20.  Who  was  Abbe  de  I'Epee?  What  did  he  contribute  to 
the  cause  of  Christian  stewardship  in  education? 

21.  Who  was  Abbe  Haiiy?  What  did  he  contribute?  Con- 
sult references  on  Laura  Bridgman  and  Helen  Keller. 

22.  Read  up  on  the  education  of  American  negroes,  Indians, 
reform  schools,  etc. 

23.  What  were  some  of  the  educative  influences  that  helped 
to  make  Colonel  Francis  W.  Parker?  Explain  the  "Quincy 
movement"  and  Parker's  work  in  Illinois. 

24.  What  educative  influences  helped  to  produce  Doctor  John 
Dewey?  What  was  the  reasoning  process  that  prompted  his 
Chicago  "occupational  experiment"?  To  what  extent  did  the 
Dewey  occupations  satisfy  the  requirements  of  Froebel?  Ex- 
plain the  value  of  the  larger  selective  freedom  of  the  Dewey 
occupations.  What  is  meant  by  the  "problem  method"  which 
Dewey  proposes?  Connect  the  Rockefeller  Foxmdation  with 
Dewey. 

25.  Study  the  making  of  Superintendent  William  Wirt  of 
Gary,  Indiana.  How  does  his  "work-study-play"  system  differ 
from  the  ordinary  school-day?  Which  of  these  three  celebrated 
educational  experiments — the  Quincy  movement,  the  Dewey 
occupations,  the  Gary  system — satisfies  the  Rockefeller  concep- 
tion of  education  most  completely?  Why?  What  accepted 
principles  of  education  are  embodied  in  the  Rockefeller  concep- 


TENDENCIES  455 

tion  ?     With  which  cherished  ideals  is  the  Rockefeller  conception 
seriously  out  of  harmony? 

26.  Find,  if  you  can,  how  the  training  and  "world"  of  Madame 
Montessori  'oed  to  ma^^  her  an  educational  reformer.  Ex- 
plain the  "oiuactic  app..  .^tus"  which  she  emploj-s  and  "The 
Children's  Houses"  which  she  has  organized.  Explain  her 
method  of  teaching  such  subjects  as  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic. Examine  her  claims  and  contributions,  and  give  her 
fuU  credit. 

27.  Who  is  Doctor  Edward  L.  Thomdike?  What  are  his 
"scales  of  measurement"  and  what  are  the  purposes?  What 
educational  problems  are  capable  of  solution  by  means  of  sci- 
entific surveys?     Refer  to  some  celebrated  surveys. 

28.  What  is  the  promise  of  our  educational  outlook?  What 
"extension  movements"  confirm  this  promise?  What  New  Age 
is  in  sight? 


INDEX 


Abb€  de  I'Epee,  443. 
Abb6  Haiiy,  443. 
Abelard,  136. 
Academy,  Plato's,  66. 
"Advancement  of  Learning,"  Ba- 
con's, 261. 
Agricola,  168. 

Agricultural  movement,  437. 
Alcuin,  131. 
Alexandria,  78,  115. 
American  colonies,  374. 

Middle,  378. 

New  England,  381. 

Southern,  375. 
Ancients,  i. 
Animal  worship,  4. 
ApoUonius,  95. 
Apperception,  320. 

Formal  steps,  321. 
Aquinas,  136. 
Architecture — • 

Egypt,  6. 

Greece,  49. 
Aristotle,  71. 
Arnold,  Thomas,  367. 
Ascham,  174. 
Athens,  55. 

Bacon,  260. 

Barnard,  Henry,  405. 

Basedow,  298. 

Bell,  Andrew,  358. 

Boccaccio,  161. 

Bourbons,  restored,  349. 

Brahmanism,  19. 

Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  166. 

Buddha,  20. 

Burgdorf,  311. 

Burgher  schools,  142,  145. 


Calvin,  195. 
Cambridge,  174,  368. 
Carter,  John  G.,  396. 
Castes — 

Egypt,  5- 

India,  i8. 
Catechists,  115. 
Cathedral  schools,  127. 
Cato,  87. 

Chantry  schools,  145. 
Charity  schools  of  England,  35. 
Charlemagne,  128. 
Che-Hwang-te,  14. 
Chinese,  13. 
Chivalry,  139. 
Christ,  loi. 

Christian  Brothers,  233. 
Christian  education,  100. 
Chrysoloras,  161. 
Church  Fathers,  117. 
Church  schools,  122. 
Cicero,  94. 

Ciceronianism,  164,  172. 
Comenius,  272. 
Commercial  movement,  435. 
Compulsory  attendance,  186. 
"Conduct  of  Schools,"  by  Rollin, 

335- 

Confucius,  12. 

Crescent  of  Mohammed,  133. 

Crotona,  63. 

Crusades,  139. 

Cynics,  76. 

Cyrus,  28. 

Dante,  159. 
"Decameron,"  161. 
Defectives,  443. 
Democracy  of  Athens,  55. 


457 


458 


INDEX 


Denominational  colleges,  440. 

Dewey,  John,  445. 

"Didactica  Magna"  of  Comenius, 

273- 
"Divine  Comedy"  of  Dante,  158. 

Duns  Scotus,  136. 

"Education,"  Spencer's,  425. 
"Education  of  Girls,"  Fen61on's, 

224. 
Efficiency,  338. 
Egyptians,  2. 
Elementary  schools — 
After  the  Reformation — 
England,  365. 
France,  352. 
Germany,  344. 
United  States,  415. 
Assyrio-Babylon,  32. 
Before  the  Reformation — 
Catechetical  schools,  115. 
Parish  schools,  127. 
Chinese,  14. 
Egyptian,  7. 
Greek — 
Athens,  57. 
Sparta,  52. 
Hebrew,  40. 
Hindu,  22. 
Persian,  27. 
Roman,  89. 
"Emile,"  Rousseau's,  294. 
England,  355. 
Epicurus,  76. 
Erasmus,  171. 
Esoteric,  64. 
Exoteric,  64. 

Experiments  in  education,  444. 
Parker,  Francis,  495. 

Family — 
Athens,  57. 
Christian,  107. 


Hebrew,  40. 

Rome,  85. 
Fellenberg,  316. 
Fen61on,  224. 
Festivals  of  the  Jews,  40. 
Feudalism,  138. 
France,  347. 
Francke,  239. 
Froebel,  323. 

"Gargantua,"  Rabelais',  251. 

Gary  System,  447. 

Germany,  339. 

Girls'  schools  after  the  Reforma- 
tion, 201. 

Gods- 
Egypt,  3. 
Greece,  47. 
Persia,  26. 
Rome,  83. 

"  Great  Teacher,"  Christ,  103, 

Greeks,  45. 

Grocyn,  174. 

Guild  schools,  144. 

Guyenne,  166. 

Gymnasiums,  Germany,  203. 

Harvard  College,  382. 
Hebrews,  35. 
Herbart,  317. 
Hieronymians,  167. 
Higher  education — 

Athens,  59,  61. 

China,  15. 

Egypt,  8. 

England,  368. 

France,  354. 

Germany,  346. 

India,  22. 

Jews,  40. 

Persia,  28. 

United  States,  417. 
Hindus,  18. 
Hohenzollems,  339. 


INDEX 


459 


Horace,  88. 
Humanism,  158. 

Ideals — • 

Athenian,  56. 

Christian,  105. 

Egyptian,  7. 

Hindu,  21. 

Persian,  27. 

Roman,  84,  88. 

Shemite,  32. 
Hebrew,  39. 

Spartan,  50,  52. 
Immortality,  4,  9,  i6,  20,  26,  39, 

48,  65,  105. 
Infant  schools — 

England,  361. 

France,  347. 
Influence  of  realism,  286. 
"Institute,"  La  Salle's,  234. 
"Institutes  of  Oratory,"  Quintil- 

ian's,  97. 
Irony  of  Socrates,  65. 

Jansenists,  219. 
"Janua,"  Comenius,  274. 
Jeromites,  167. 
Jesuit  schools,  209. 
Jews,  39. 

Kindergarten,  Froebel's,  328. 
Kindergartens,  332. 
Knight  schools,  140. 
Knighthood,  141. 
Knox,  John,  197. 

La  Salle,  234. 
Lancaster,  Joseph,  359. 
"Letter  to  Mayors,"  184. 
"Liberal  Arts,"  125. 
Libraries,  188. 
Linacre,  174. 

"Loci      Communes,"      Melanch- 
thon's,  191. 


Locke,  279. 

Creed,  281. 

Formal  discipline,  284. 
London,  369. 
Louis  Napoleon,  356. 
Louis  Philippe,  349. 
Loyola,  207. 
Luther,  180. 
Lyceum,  Aristotle's,  72. 

Madras  System,  358. 
Mann,  Horace,  399. 
Massachusetts  after  1776,  394. 
Melanchthon,  189. 
Mental  measurements,  449. 
"Methodus    Novissima,"    Come- 
nius', 276. 
Middle  States  after  1776,  390,  409. 
Milton,  264. 
Mohammed,  132. 
Monasticism,  122. 
Monitorial  schools,  358. 
Montaigne,  255. 
Montessori  method,  448. 
Morals — 

Athenian,  58. 

Chinese,  16. 

Egyptian,  5. 

Greek,  49,  53,  58. 

Hebrew,  42. 

Hindu,  20. 

Persian,  26. 

Roman,  83,  92. 

Spartan,  54. 
Mulcaster,  257. 
Music — 

Athenian,  58. 

Monkish,  125. 

Reformers,  185. 

Spartan,  54. 

Napoleon,  348. 

National  Convention  of   France, 
348. 


460 


INDEX 


National  systems  of  modern  educa- 
tion, 336,  414. 
Naturalism,  290. 
Neuhof,  307. 

"New  Atlantis,"  Bacon's,  263. 
New  England  after  1776,  395,  408. 
New  South,  413. 
New  York  after  1776,  378,  390. 
New  York  City,  392. 
Normal  schools — 

Germany — 

Konigsberg,  318. 
Prussia,  340. 

Switzerland,  312. 

United  States,  402. 
"Novimi  Organum,"  Bacon's,  262. 

Ogden  movement,  444. 
Oracles  of  the  Greeks,  49. 
"Orbis  Pictus,"  Comenius,  276. 
Oriental  nations,  ancient,  i. 
Overseers,  Persian,  28, 
Oxford,  173,  368. 

Palace  schools,  Charlemagne,  129. 

Parish  schools,  127. 

Parker,  Francis  W.,  333,  445. 

Patriotism,  337. 

Pedagogium,  Francke's,  241. 

Pedagogue,  57. 

Pennsylvania  after  1776,  379,  393, 

409.  _ 
Peripatetics,  73. 
Persians,  25. 
Pestalozzi,  305. 
Pestalozzianism,  315. 
Petrarch,  160. 
Pfefferkom,  170. 

Philanthropinum,  Basedow's,  300. 
Philanthropy,  336. 
Phoenicians,  35. 
Physical  culture — 
Athens,  58. 


Knight  schools,  141. 

Sparta,  52. 
Pietism,  237. 
Plato,  67. 

"Politics,"  Aristotle's,  73. 
Port  Royalists,  219. 
"Praeceptor  Germanise,"  190. 
Princes'  schools  after  the  Reforma- 
tion, 202. 
Private  schools  of  England,  367. 
Prophets,  40. 

Psychological  movement,  305. 
Pythagoras,  63. 

Quintilian,  96. 

Rabelais,  351. 
Ratich,  267. 
Realism,  247. 

Humanistic,  248. 

Sense,  249. 

Social,  349. 
Reformation,  178. 
Rein,  Professor,  322. 
Religion — 

Egyptian,  3. 

Greek,  47. 

Hebrew,  39. 

Persian,  26. 

Roman,  83. 
Religious  Moral  Movement,  438. 
Renaissance — 

England,  173. 

France,  165. 

Germany,  166. 

Italy,  157. 
"Republic,"  Plato's,  69. 

Third  French,  351. 
Reuchlin,  169. 
Revival  of  learning,  158. 

Italy,  159. 
RoUin,  228. 
Romans,  81. 
Rousseau,  291. 


INDEX 


461 


Sacred  games  of  the  Greeks,  50. 
Saracens,  132. 

"Saxony  School  Plan,"  191. 
Sceptics,  76. 
Scholasticism,  135. 
"Scholemaster,"  Ascham's,  174. 
Schools  of  Greek  philosophy,  75. 
Secondary  (higher)  schools — 

Chinese,  15. 

Egyptian,  8. 

EngUsh,  366. 

French,  353. 

German,  344. 

Greek,  59. 

Hebrew,  40. 

Hindu,  22. 

Persian,  28. 

Roman,  90. 

United  States,  416. 
Seguin,  442. 
Seneca,  95. 
Shemites,  31, 

Socializing  movement,  334. 
Socrates,  64. 
Sophists,  6i. 
Southern  States  after  1776,  389, 

411. 
Sparta,  51. 
Spencer,  Herbert,  424 
Spener,  Phihp,  238. 
Stanz,  309. 
State  education — 

Persia,  27. 

Sparta,  51. 

Prussia,  339. 
Stewardship,  440. 
Stoics,  76. 

Strasburg  gjonnasium,  204. 
Sturm,  John,  204. 
Svmday-schools — 

England,  357. 

Modem,  441. 


Tendencies  in  modem  education, 

423- 
Thaddeus  Stevens,  395. 
Town  schools  of  New  England, 

383- 
"Tractate  on  Education,"  RoUin, 

229. 

United  States,  374, 
Universities — 

Greek,  77. 

Hebrew,  40. 

Middle  Ages,  146. 

Post-Reformation,  215,  216. 

Roman,  92. 

Virginia  after  1776,  387. 
Vittorino,  162. 
Vocational  movement — 

Fellenberg,  316. 

Modem,  432. 

Washington,  Booker  T.,  444. 
Western  States,  397,  411. 
William  and  Mary  College,  377. 
Woman — 

Athenian,  60. 

Christian,  107. 

Egyptian,  6. 

Hebrew,  40. 

Hindu,  23. 

Jansenist,  224. 

Reformation,  201. 

Spartan,  54. 

Xenophon,  65. 

Yverdun,  312. 

Ziller,  322. 
Zoroaster,  27. 
Zwingli,  194. 


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